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. 2022 Sep 16;116(6):1565–1579. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqac255

TABLE 4.

Changes in cardiometabolic and anthropometric parameters according to quartiles of 1-y changes in betaine intake1

Variables Total n Q1 (−87.8 to −18.2 mg/d) (n = 1404) Q2 (−18.1 to −2.1 mg/d) (n = 1403) Q3 (−2.0 to 16.3 mg/d) (n = 1403) Q4 (16.4–99.0 mg/d) (n = 1403) P model 1 P model 2 P model 3 P-linear trend
Δ Betaine intake, mg/d 5613 −31.83 ± 11.15 −9.99 ± 4.60 6.71 ± 5.29 35.13 ± 15.21 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Δ Energy intake, kcal/d 5613 392.43 ± 335.55 12.89 ± 242.54 −261.31 ± 242.52 −743.87 ± 372.17 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Δ Adherence to er-MedDiet (max: 17 points) 5591 2.89 ± 3.04 3.07 ± 3.16 3.31 ± 3.27 3.69 ± 3.38 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.127
Δ PA, MET · min/wk 5613 416.68 ± 2229.72 561.58 ± 2374.00 486.55 ± 2530.31 674.29 ± 2568.02 0.015 0.015 <0.001 0.017
Δ BMI, kg/m2 5601 −0.68 ± 1.58 −0.72 ± 1.51 −0.93 ± 1.55 −0.99 ± 1.58 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.269
Δ Body weight, kg 5609 −1.79 ± 4.07 −1.90 ± 3.90 −2.52 ± 4.14 −2.78 ± 4.35 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Δ Waist circumference, cm 5593 −1.83 ± 5.48 −2.34 ± 4.80 −3.16 ± 5.09 −3.26 ± 5.05 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Δ Glucose, mg/dL 5492 −1.14 ± 21.14 −2.22 ± 22.69 −4.23 ± 25.28 −2.72 ± 20.50 0.013 0.013 0.010 0.155
Δ HbA1c, % 4718 −0.04 ± 0.50 −0.06 ± 0.55 −0.10 ± 0.62 −0.10 ± 0.50 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.017
Δ TG, mg/dL 5472 −4.16 ± 59.03 −7.01 ± 67.49 −7.34 ± 75.63 −11.21 ± 72.49 0.010 0.010 0.007 0.028
Δ Total cholesterol, mg/dL 5483 −1.30 ± 29.99 −1.42 ± 32.53 −2.50 ± 34.56 −4.52 ± 32.17 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.861
Δ LDL cholesterol, mg/dL 5088 −1.64 ± 26.59 −1.43 ± 28.65 −2.97 ± 26.45 −4.16 ± 27.31 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.742
Δ HDL cholesterol, mg/dL 5427 1.32 ± 7.69 1.51 ± 7.30 1.44 ± 7.35 1.47 ± 7.18 0.672 0.672 0.707 <0.001
Δ Systolic BP, mm Hg 5613 −3.83 ± 24.29 −5.14 ± 23.33 −4.69 ± 24.90 −4.43 ± 23.66 0.624 0.624 0.593 0.379
Δ Diastolic BP, mm Hg 5613 −2.51 ± 13.68 −3.13 ± 13.74 −3.26 ± 14.34 −2.63 ± 13.65 0.746 0.746 0.717 0.879
1

Total n = 5613. Values are mean ± SD unless otherwise indicated. Betaine intake was adjusted by energy residuals. Characteristics among quartiles were compared using 1-factor ANOVA. Model 1: adjusted by sex, age, and center. Model 2: adjusted by sex, age, center, civil status, education, smoking habits, sedentary lifestyle, and choline intake at baseline. Model 3: adjusted by sex, age, center, civil status, education, smoking habits, sedentary lifestyle, choline intake at baseline, adherence to an er-MedDiet and changes in adherence to an er-MedDiet, energy intake and changes in energy intake, and PA and changes in PA. P-linear trend: adjusted by age, sex, center, BMI, and energy intake at baseline. BP, blood pressure; er-MedDiet, energy-restricted traditional Mediterranean diet; MET, metabolic equivalent of task; PA, physical activity; Q, quartile.