TABLE 1.
Nutrients | Anti-inflammatory effects | Pro-inflammatory effects | Antitumor effects | Tumor effects |
Vitamin A | It is capable of promoting the Th2 anti-inflammatory response through repression of IL-12 and IFNγ which are synthesized by Th1 lymphocytes (46). Stimulates production of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) (47). |
It is a positive relationship between vitamin A and mitogen-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine (IFN-γ) (47). Under inflammatory conditions RA may sustain or cause stimulation of intestinal inflammation (50). Through the liberation of certain cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, IL-12, and nitric oxide is shown that RA may affect macrophages’ activity (51). |
It has antitumor effects on human pancreatic cell lines (53). It has antitumor effects in metastasis renal carcinoma by ATRA. It seems that all-trans-RA (ATRA) has an antitumor effect (54). In acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL), ATRA is utilized as a very efficient therapeutic agent (56). |
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Vitamin B1(Thiamin) | Anti-inflammatory effects are observed due to the fact that B1 deficiencies side effects is linked to stimulation of IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α (pro-inflammatory cytokines) expression and neuro-inflammation (64). B1 may be used in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases through its involvement in the suppression of the pro-oxidative activity of microglial cells (65). |
There are some speculations regarding its role in cancer due to its involvement as a cofactor in proliferation and energy pathways that are essential in the development of tumor cells (60, 66). | ||
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) | Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant modulator, especially in lungs (68, 69). Vitamin B2, act as an anti-inflammatory suppressor. It may block the activation of the NF-κB (74). |
B2 bacterial compounds stimulate innate mucosal through invariant T cells which are recognized by their inflammation and defense function in gut mucosal by their products IL-17 and IFN-γ (71). | ||
Vitamin B3 (Niacin) | Through deacetylation and suppression of NF-κB, NAD may be an anti-inflammatory nutrient (78). It has inhibition effects on inflammatory cytokines (79). It is responsible for diminution of certain alveolar macrophages cytokines such as IL-6, IL-1α, and tumor necrosis factor -α after niacin administration (80). Niacin was considered an inhibitory factor for pro-inflammatory cytokines (80). |
It inhibits proliferation of animal tumor cells (79). | ||
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) | It has been found a negative relationship between vitamin B12 and TNF-α (81). Vitamin B12 deficiency is recognized to increase in chronic diseases like insulin resistance (86) and coronary heart disease (87) the inflammatory processes. |
No correlation was found between B12 and certain types of cancer like squamous cell carcinoma, prostate, breast, and colorectal (90). | Highintake of B12 was considered hazardous for all types of cancer in a big meta-analysis of cancer patients (92). | |
Vitamin C | Vitamin C is responsible for preventing activity of pro-inflammatory cytokines and launching the NF-κB reaction (98). In peripheral blood cultures that are stimulated with LPS (lipopolysaccharide) after vitamin C administration was observed an enhancement of IL-10 and a reduction of TNF-α and IFN-γ (99). Vitamin C may be an antioxidant protector for the skin in the fight against ROS as a result of external factors’ synergistic work, particularly pollutants (102). |
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(104) et al., 2015 confirmed the decreased inflammation effects in hypertensive and/or diabetic adults through a moderate decline of inflammatory markers such as hs-CRP and IL-6. It is involved in the regulation of HIF-1α activity, which is capable to make possible neutrophil viability under hypoxic conditions (105). |
It is supposed that vitamin C is involved in the fight against tumor culture cells through the number enhancement of the NK cells (107). | |||
Vitamin D | Vitamin D may be an anti-inflammatory nutrient, through suppression of NF-κB (116). It is responsible for the inhibition of specific pro-inflammatory Th1 cells cytokines like TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-2, and IL-17 (117, 118). It is capable to increase the number of cytokines such as IL-10, IL-4, and IL-5 as a result of an increase in the activity of Th2 cells (119). At a molecular level, through the suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and prostaglandins (PG) action as well as stopping the NF-κB signaling pathway calcitriol is considered an anti-inflammatory nutrient (128). |
Anti-cancer action of vitamin D is extrapolated in tumor cells by calcitriol which is the active biologically and hormonally compound of vitamin D (127). The stimulation of apoptosis, the suppression of cancer cell proliferation, and delayed tumor development in cancer are certain effects of calcitriol (126, 127). Calcitriol may be used as a preventive and therapeutic agent in cancer (128). |
ATRA, all-trans-RA; HIF-1α, hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha; IL, interleukin; IFNγ, Interferon γ; NK, natural killer; NF-κB, pro-inflammatory factor Kappa B; hs-CRP high-sensitivity C-reactive protein; RA, retinoic acid; ROS, reactive oxygen species; Th, helper T cell; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor.