TABLE 1.
Comparison between FMT studies.
| Disease studied | Study description | Observed effect | Adverse effects |
Gut microbiota alterations | Citation |
| Obesity | Oral capsule FMT to obese adolescents (n = 42) vs. sham treatment (n = 45) | No effect on BMI. Reduced abdominal adiposity observed at 12 weeks |
Loose stools, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, bloody stools | ↑Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Alistipes, Bacteroides ↓ Escherichia coli |
(33) |
| Endoscopic FMT on obese patients. FMT (n = 20) vs. FMT + lifestyle intervention (LSI) (n = 21) vs. sham FMT treatment (n = 20) | No significant weight loss in FMT only and sham FMT groups. Reduced liver stiffness, total and LDL cholesterol with weight loss in the FMT + LSI group at 24 weeks |
Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain No FMT related serious adverse effects |
FMT alone: ↑ Faecalibacterium, Roseburia, Eubacterium FMT + LSI: ↑ Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus |
(20) | |
| Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) | Transendoscopic enteric tube FMT treatment (n = 17) on T2DM patients | 64% with significant decrease in HgbA1c, blood glucose and uric acid with elevated C-peptide at 12 weeks | none | ↑ Anaerotruncus, Rikenenellaceae | (46) |
| Diet only (n = 8) vs. Diet + Oral capsule FMT group (n = 8) on T2DM patients | Both groups showed decreased blood glucose and weight loss after 90 days with FMT accelerating the effect | None | ↑ Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus ↓ Desulfovibrio, Bilophila |
(48) | |
| Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) | Allogenic FMT (n = 11) vs. Autologous FMT (n = 10) in T1DM patients | Preserved C-peptide levels and beta-cell function at 12 months | None | Desulfovibrio piger concentrations predicted beta-cell function | (50) |
| Nasojejunal FMT on a 24-year-old patient with T1DM and depression | Improved blood glucose, HgbA1c, constipation, nutritional status Depression symptoms resolved |
None |
↑ Bifidobacterium, Blautia, Faecalibacterium, Bacteroides, Eubacterium, Streptococcus ↓Alistipes, Escherichia, Parabacteroides |
(51) | |
| Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) | Rectal probe FMT into a mouse model with T2DM and DKD | No weight gain Reduced insulin resistance, TNF-α and albuminuria |
↑ Odoribacteraceae | (53) | |
|
Metabolic syndrome |
Oral gavage FMT in metabolic syndrome induced rodent model | Decreased LPS, TNF-α and oxidative stress post-FMT | ↓ Ruminococcus, Coprococcus | (56) | |
| Allogenic FMT (n = 26) vs. Autologous FMT (n = 12) on Metabolic syndrome patients | Improved insulin sensitivity and decreased HgbA1c at 6 weeks post-FMT with no significant difference at 18 weeks | None | ↑ Lactobacillus, Butyrivibrio, Akkermansia ↓ Eubacterium ventriosum, Ruminococcus torques |
(58) | |
| Major depressive disorder (MDD) |
Oral capsule FMT on MDD patients (n = 2) | Both with improved depressive symptoms after 4 weeks and one up to 8 weeks | No serious adverse effects | ↑ Bacteroides, Butyrivibrio, Faecalibacterium Variable: Alistipes spp. |
(69) |
| Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) | Oral or rectal FMT on children with ASD (n = 18) | 80% with improved GI symptoms Behavioral deficits improved over an 8-week period |
Vomiting (n = 1) | ↑ Bifidobacterium, Prevotella, Desulfovibrio | (77) |
| Multiple sclerosis (MS) | FMT into a mouse model of MS via oral gavage | Reduced myelin antigen-specific lymphocytic proliferation, disease severity and spinal cord pathology Increased number of T regulatory cells |
↑ Lactobacillus spp., Bifidobacterium pseudolongum, Bacteroides fragilis | (79) | |
| Rectal enema FMT in a 61-year-old with secondary progressive MS | Disease stability achieved for 10 years after single FMT Functional composite MS scores improved over 10 years |
None | Not assessed | (81) | |
| Alzheimer’s disease (AD) | Intragastric FMT on a mouse model of AD | Reduced Tau-protein phosphorylation and amyloid plaques | ↑ Bacteroidetes, Alloprevotella ↓ Akkermansia, Desulfovibrio |
(87) | |
| Parkinson’s disease (PD) | FMT treatment for PD patients (n = 6) via various delivery methods | Five patients with improvement of motor and non-motor symptoms as early as 4 weeks with significant improvement at 24 weeks | One unspecified adverse event requiring hospitalization | Not assessed | (89) |
| Ulcerative colitis (UC) |
Single FMT via colonoscopy and 5 enema FMT per week for 8 weeks (n = 42) vs. placebo (n = 43) in UC patients | 19% increase in remission rates at 8 weeks follow up in the FMT group | Self-limiting GI symptoms in 78% Serious adverse events (n = 2) |
↑ Prevotella, Bacteroides Barnesiella, Parabacteroides, Clostridium cluster IV, Ruminococcus, Blautia associated with remission Fusobacterium and Sutterella associated with lack of remission |
(92) |
| Prepared pooled donor FMT (n = 38) vs. autologous FMT (n = 35) via colonoscopy in UC patients followed by 2 enemas over 7 days | 23% increase in steroid-free remission relative to controls at 8 weeks 5/12 patients remained in remission for 1 year |
Worsening colitis (n = 1) C. Difficile infection requiring colectomy (n = 1) Pneumonia (n = 1) |
↑ Anaerofilum pentosovorans, Bacteroides coprophilus, Alistipes indistinctus, Odoribacter splanchnicus ↓ Anaerostipescaccae, Clostridium aldenense |
(24) | |
| Rectal enema FMT (n = 9) vs. placebo (n = 6) in pediatric UC patients | Eight patients with clinical improvement measured by the pediatric UC activity index 5 patients with remission at 30 weeks follow up |
Development of C. Difficile infection (n = 2) *Patients already had history of CDI |
↑ Alistipes spp. ↓ Escherichia spp. |
(94) | |
| FMT via colonoscopy (n = 10) vs. control (n = 10) in UC patients | 40% improvement in Mayo scores in the FMT treatment group up to 8 weeks but no significant difference to controls at 24 weeks | Ebstein-Barr virus infection | ↑ Bacteroidetes, Prevotella ↓ Proteobacteria, Escherichia spp. |
(95) | |
| Oral capsule FMT after colonoscopic FMT vs. sham oral placebo after colonoscopic FMT | Daily encapsulated therapy extended the durability of FMT-induced changes in gut microbiota Decreased cytokine production by mucosal invariant T cells (MAIT) |
Nausea, fever Worsening colitis (n = 2) |
Similar community-level changes in gut microbiota between donor and recipients | (96) | |
| Crohn’s disease (CD) | Endoscopic FMT followed by colonoscopic FMT one week later in CD patients (n = 27) | Clinical remission in 18 patients | No serious adverse effects | ↑ Roseburia, Eubacterium, Faecalibacterium, Bacteroides ↓ Fusobacterium, Streptococcus, Clostridium |
(101) |
| Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) | FMT via colonoscopy in patients with IBS (n = 10) |
Six patients exhibited improved stool form at 4 weeks Hamilton anxiety and depression scores improved irrespective of IBS response |
None | ↑Bifidobacterium The genus was strongly associated with clinical response to FMT |
(104) |
| FMT via colonoscopy in patients with refractory IBS (n = 17) |
10 patients showed improved IBS severity index scores of 50 or more points after 12 weeks |
Abdominal distention for 2 days after FMT | ↑Akkermansia, Neisseria ↓ Desulfovibrio, Delftia |
(106) | |
| FMT via colonoscopy of 30 g samples (n = 37) vs. 60 g sample (n = 40) in IBS patients already responsive to first FMT | 32/37 patients-maintained response to FMT in 1 year 35/40 patients-maintained response to FMT in 1 year |
Diverticulitis (n = 2) | ↑Eubacterium biforme, Parabacteroides, Bacteroides, Prevotella, Alistipes | (105) | |
| Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) | Rifaximin/Lactulose followed by rectal enema or oral capsule FMT in cirrhotic patients (n = 20) | Increase SCFA and bile acids Reduction in antibiotic resistance genes |
Lower HE related complications in FMT group | ↑ Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcaceae | (112) |
| Single enema FMT in patients with recurrent HE (n = 10) vs. Standard of care (SOC) (n = 10) | MELD scores remained stable but higher than SOC group FMT treated groups had no HE related hospitalizations while the SOC group had five |
No FMT-related adverse effects | ↑ Bifidobacteriaceae Ruminococcaceae, Lactobacillaceae | (114) | |
| Advanced melanoma | FMT via colonoscopy in addition to pembrolizumab in patients with PD-1-refractory-melanoma (n = 15) | Six patients showed clinical improvement Increased CD8 + T cell and MAIT cell activation and decreased IL-8 expressing myeloid cells |
Hypothyroidism (17.6%) | ↑Bifidobacteriaceae, Ruminococcaceae, Lachnospiraceae ↓ Bacteroidaceae, Sutterellaceae |
(23) |
| Oral capsule FMT in patients with PD-1-refractory-melanoma (n = 10) | Three patients showed clinical response (two partial and one complete) | Mild bloating (n = 1) | ↑Enterococcaceae ↓Veillonella atypica |
(119) | |
| Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) | FMT treated AML patients (n = 25) vs. standard of care (n = 20) | FMT is a safe and effective treatment to restore microbiota concentration in AML patients | Escherichia coli sepsis (3 months after FMT) |
↑Ruminococceacae, Lachnospiraceae ↓Veillonellaceae, Enterococcaceae |
(122) |
| Graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) | FMT via nasojejunal tube to IV steroid refractory GI tract GvHD patients (n = 23) vs. controls (n = 18) | Higher rates of clinical remission in just 2–3 weeks Increased mean survival to over 432 days compared to controls |
Thrombocytopenia (n = 1) Cardiac event (n = 1) |
↑ Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes ↓ Proteobacteria |
(134) |
| Nasoduodenal tube FMT in GvHD patients (n = 4) | Complete response in three patients and partial response in one patient | Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (n = 1) | ↑Faecalibacterium, Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides, Lactobacillus ↓Streptococcus |
(135) | |
| Four FMTs via endoscopy in 1 month in a 14-year-old with stage 4 GvHD | Favorable alterations in gut microbiota are present post-FMT in a GvHD patient | None | ↑Faecalibacterium, Bacteroides ↓ Enterococcus |
(132) |