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Pathophysiological pathways of diabetic retinopathy as a consequence of hyperglycemia. Abbreviations: AGEs—advance glycation end products; FADH2—redox cofactor flavin adenine dinucleotide; GLAST—glutamate transporter protein; NADH—reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; NMDA—N-methyl D-aspartate receptor; TNF—tumor necrosis factor; VEGF—vascular endothelium growth factor (adapted from [130]).
