Table 2.
Natural stimuli that trigger maternal behavior. Estrogen (E2), progesterone (P4), prolactin (PRL), oxytocin (OT), vaginocervical stimulation (VCS). ⇑ = increase, ⇓ = decrease.
| Stimuli | Effect | Behavioral Response | Representative References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hormones E2 P4 PRL OT |
⇑ ⇑ ⇑ ⇑ |
Pup retrieval Retrieving Nest-building Nursing |
[34,35] [45] [36] [47] |
| Parturition VCS |
⇑ |
Nursing Retrieving |
[38,39] [40] |
| Mating | ⇓ | Infanticide | [54,55] |
| Exposure to pups | ⇑ | Nest-building, retrieving, licking, crouching posture |
[48,49,50] |
| Experience Multiparous |
⇑ ⇑ ⇑ ⇑ ⇓ |
Licking, nursing, contact Defense Suckling Following, grooming Rejection |
[60] [61] [64] |
| Environmental enrichment | ⇓ ⇑ |
Anxiety Licking, grooming, crouching posture, defense |
[65] [66] |