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. 2022 Nov 30;11(12):2374. doi: 10.3390/antiox11122374

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© 2022 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Neuroprotective mechanisms of α-pinene in migraine [168]. The α-pinene can reduce LPS-induced inflammation in macrophages. α-pinene can block phosphorylation of MAPKs (ERK/JNK) in macrophages and reduce the level of active (soluble IKK). This can prevent degradation of the NF-ĸB/IĸB complex. Also, α-pinene can hinder NF-ĸB phosphorylation and formation of the P65/p50/NF-ĸB complex that leads to its nuclear translocation and induction of inflammatory genes to generate cytokines. Abbreviations; TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor alpha), IL-1β (Interleukin-1β), IL-6 (Interleukin), Cox-2 (Cyclooxygenase-2), Inos (Inducible nitric oxide synthase).