Table 1.

The in vitro and in vivo biofilm models used to study polymicrobial biofilms responsible for different chronic infections.

Infections	Microorganisms	In Vitro/In Vivo/Model Systems	References
Skin infections by Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Commensal, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Micrococcus luteus and pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Immortalized keratinocytes (HaCat cells)	[102]
Chronic wound infections	MRSA, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis (VRE) and P. aeruginosa	Lubbock Chronic Wound Biofilm (LCWB) model	[103]
Wound infections	Complex polymicrobial biofilms containing Candida albicans, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, Staphylococcus hominis, Corynebacterium simulans, Streptococcus agalactiae, Finegoldia magna, Prevotella buccalis, Porphyromonas asaccharolytica, Anaerococcus vaginalis, and Peptoniphilus gorbachii	Skin epidermis model	[104]
Observed in the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients	C. albicans and P. aeruginosa	Caenorhabditis elegans (Nematode)	[105]
Chronic wound infections	S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, E. faecalis and Finegoldia magna	Mice	[57]
Diabetes-associated manifestations such as lower-limb amputations due to wound infections	Escherichia coli, Bacteroides fragilis, and Clostridium perfringens	Human type 2 diabetes model of mice	[106]
Periodontal disease	Porphyromonas gingivalis and Streptococcus gordonii	Murine model of periodontitis	[107]
Chronic periodontitis	P. gingivalis and Treponema denticola	Murine model of periodontitis	[108]
Otitis media	Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis	Chinchilla infection model of otitis media	[109]
Acute otitis media	Moraxella catarrhalis, Streptococcus pneumoniae and non-typeable H. influenza	In vitro nasopharyngeal colonization model	[32]