TABLE 2.

List of various nanoparticles used therapeutically in the treatment of schistosomal infections.

S. No	Nanoparticles used	Schistosomes species studied	Model animal used in the study	Efficacy	References
1	Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) 0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg	S. mansoni	Mice	In comparison to the control group, AuNPs dramatically reduce overall worm load, egg load in liver granuloma size, malondialdehyde activate and nitric oxide levels, and enhance glutathione levels. This also decreases mRNA expression of interleukin-1, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor, interferon, and inducible nitric oxide syntheses. This result indicates that Au-NPs are being effective anti-schistosomal and antioxidant agents. AuNPs used at a higher dose 1 mg/kg were found more effective than free PZQ in worm burden and egg count	Dkhil et al. (2015a)
2	Gold Nanoparticle (AuNPs) 1 mg/kg b.wt	S. mansoni	Mice	Au-NPs therapy considerably lowers splenic levels of nitrite/nitrate and MDA in splenic tissue as a consequence of Au-NPs and PZQ treatment; NPs also enhance the level of GSH in infected mice gut and spleen. Au-NPs significantly improve histological images of the spleen with specific histological impairments than the non-infected control group	Dkhil et al. (2017)
3	Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) 250,500 and 1,000 µg/kg	S. mansoni	Mice	AuNPs significantly reduce the level of nitrite/nitrate and MDA, AuNPs at a dose rate of 250 µg/kg showed non-significant changes in KIM-1 and significant up-regulation of NGAL mRNA expression, whereas MCP-1 and TGF-β was an expression of mRNA which significantly reduced. AuNPs treatment in mice reduced the extent of histological impairment and renal oxidative damage. AuNPs were able to regulate gene expression impaired by S. mansoni infection	Dkhil et al. (2016b)
4	Selenium nanoparticles (Se-NPs) (0.5 mg/kg)	S. mansoni	Mice	Injection of selenium nanoparticles into Schistosoma infected mice enhanced hepatic histopathology and reduced the diameter of granulomas. The treatment increased the level of glutathione. While the nitrite/nitrate and malondialdehyde levels decrease significantly. The result suggested that the Se-NPs in infected mice with S. mansoni work as an Anti-schistosomal drug	Dkhil et al. (2016a)
5	Zinc oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) 5.6 mg/kg	S. mansoni	Mice	In schistosome-infected mice, treatment with ZnO-NPs declined brain oxidative stress parameters, with glutathione and catalase activity considerably enhanced. The therapy, also significantly decreased the levels of nitrite/nitrate, malondialdehyde, and reactive oxygen. ZnO-NPs treatment also improved the neuro-schistosomiasis-related brain histopathological impairment and restored the DNA laddering profile	Bauomy, (2020)
6	Gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs) 1 mg/kg Selenium nanoparticles (Se-NPs) 0.5 mg/kg	S. mansoni	Mice	To test the effect of the nanoparticles, infected mice were fed them individually. The parasites caused a substantial reduction in glutathione levels after injection; nevertheless, the levels of nitric oxide and malondialdehyde were greatly augmented. The treatment of mice with metal nanoparticles dramatically reduced the levels body weight changes, oxidative stress, and histological alterations in the jejunal tissue significantly. Thus they have proved their potential anti-schistosomal activities in mice successfully	Dkhil et al. (2019)
7	Silver Nanoparticles (Ag NPs) 125 µg ml−1	S. japonicum	Mice	In a dose-dependent fashion, AgNPs produced cercarial tail-shedding, disturbed behavior, and a reduction in cercarial secretion. It was discovered that extended treatment was cercariocidal, which might be attributed to AgNP-induced cercarial tail loss rather than toxicity. Ag + may be important in the effects of AgNPs on schistosome cercariae. Non-etheless, given the remarkably unusual physicochemical properties and biological activities of various nano-sized materials, including AgNPs, the possible contribution of AgNPs’ nano dimensions could not be ruled out	Cheng et al. (2013)
8	Au-NPS (0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/kg)	S. mansoni	Mice	Au-NPS could reduce the neurooxidative stress and control the gene expression in the brain of diseased mice. The results show that GNPs have an antischistosomal effect against S. mansoni. The neuro-schistosomiasis treatment with GNPs improved the histopathological changes. A significant decrease (p ≤ 0.05) was noticed in DA content in schistosome-infected mice treated with 0.25 and 0.5 mg/kg GNPs and+PZQ as compared to the non-infected control group. On contrary, the administration of the higher dose of GNPs (1.0 mg/kg) resulted in a significant elevation in DA content versus the control group. The content of brain DA showed a significant increase in all treated groups as compared to the schistosome-infected group	Dkhil et al. (2015b)
9	Cur-GNPs	S. mansoni	Mice	Curcumin-loaded gold nanoparticles (Cur-GNPs) combined with PZQ reduce worm load in the third week, with the largest drop in the intestine and liver egg content and a 70.1 decrease in granuloma size. This study showed that curcumin when combined with PZQ, has substantial antischistosomal properties against S. mansoni through altering biochemical, histological, and immunological alterations as compared to the untreated control group	Mokbel et al. (2020)
10	Ag-NPs (50 μg/ml) + Au NPs (100 μg/ml)	S. mansoni	Mice	In in-vitro research, Ag-NPs and Au-NPs were used at dosage rates of 50 g/ml and 100 g/ml, respectively, S. mansoni cercariae morality was enhanced in a dosage and time-dependent manner, reaching 100% mortality after 1 h of incubation. In an in-vivo trial, it reduced worm load, and egg count/g in the gut, and liver as compared to the control group	Moustafa et al. (2018)
11	TA-Long-circulating pegylated liposomes (LCL) 11 mg Sb/kg	S. mansoni	Mice	When related to the control group (untreated or treated with empty LCL), the LCL-treated cluster has a considerable drop in worm load (55%). According to the findings of this investigation, LCLs decrease toxicity and efficiently transport TA into S. mansoni in the last stage of parasite infection. The present work demonstrates that LCL reduces the acute toxicity of TA and effectively deliver this drug to S. mansoni during the late stages of parasite infection	de Melo et al. (2003)