TABLE 3.

List of Nano-sensor/Nano-material used in improving the diagnostic ability against schistosomal infections.

S. No	Nano-sensor nano-materials used	Schistosomes species studied	Num. of schistosoma positive sample in study	Efficacy	References
1	AuNPs-Mab/Elisa	S. mansoni	71	ELISA’s sensitivity and specificity for detecting Circulating Schistosomal antigen (CSA) using AuNPs-Mab was 100% and 97.8%. A more significant positive correlation was detected on the use of AuNPs-Mab/ELISA (r = 0.882). Loading AuNPs with Mab (6D/6F) improved the precision of sandwich ELISA for the determination of CSA, allowing active and mild infections to be identified easily	Kame et al. (2016)
2	AuNP-IgG Nano-sensor	S. mansoni	……………	Immobilized AuNPs combined with bilharzia antibodies proved their diagnostic potential. The detection range of bilharzia antigen in stool samples was 1.13 × 10−1 ng ml−1 to 2.3 × 103 ng ml−1, with a detection limit of 8.3887 × 10−2 ng ml-1, showing the ability of the nano-biosensor for detection of bilharzia antigen in stool samples	Odundo et al. (2018)
3	NCE-AGs	S. mansoni	………………	The proposed NCE electrode’s quantitative response and great sensitivity to Abs of S. mansoni are as low as 38 pg/indicateting that it may be developed as a site-user, low-cost, and rapid electrochemical immuno-sensor	Shohayeb et al. (2016)
4	AuNP-IgG Conjugate	S. mansoni	………………	Conjugate was tested as the analyte with a differing concentration of conjugate soluble Egg Antigen (SEA). The single response was directly proportional to the SEA concentration. A SEA concentration plot against the current change was obtained. The detection limit of 3.31 × 10−5 ng/ml was obtained with formula 3σ/slope, where σ is the standard deviation of three blank solutions	Naumih et al. (2016)
5	MBA-Fe3O4-NPs-AuNPs-DNA Probe System	S. mansoni	………………	On the changed surface of the electrode, the probe system exhibits an efficient electrochemical response. At varied DNA quantities in the genome, the proposed biosystem was capable of identifying S. mansoni unique nucleotide sequences in cerebrospinal fluid (CFS) and blood samples. At higher DNA concentrations, bio recognition caused an increase in electron transfer resistance and a decrease in current peaks during electrochemical testing. The established platform had detection limits of 0.781 and 0.685 pg L-1 DNA for serum and CFS, respectively	Santos et al. (2017)
6	MPTS-AuNPs-DNA Probe System	S. mansoni	………………	The proposed biosystem detected the S. mansoni genome sequence in urine samples, cerebrospinal fluid system, and serum in varying amounts. It measured concentrations in urine (27–50 pg L−1), cerebral fluid (25–60 pg L−1), and serum (27–42 pg L−1). The limit detection (LOD) of the biosensor was 0.6 pg μL−1. The developed labeled free genosensor was able to detect small concentrations of S. mansoni DNA in complex biological fluids	Santos et al. (2019)
7	GICA	S. japonicum	174	GICA shows a sensitivity of 93.7% in patients with Schistosomiasis and 97.6% specificity in the healtyh population and patients with other parasitic diseases.Partially purified SEA in GICA is effective for detecting schistosomiasis in the fields since it requires a little amount of blood, has high sensitivity, and has a low cross-reaction rate	Shou-fu et al. (2014)
8	GICA	S. japonicum	100	GICA identification strips of S. japonicum in mice, rabbits, buffaloes, and goats show high sensitivity (100% in each spp.) and specificity (100%, 100%, 94.23%, and 88.64% respectively). When compared with ELISA, the GICA strips exhibited similar sensitivity and specificity in the diagnosis of schistosomiasis in mice, rabbits, buffaloes, and goats. Besides, only 5 μl of serum is required for the test and the detection can be completed within 5 min	Xu et al. (2017)