Table 2.

Molecular mechanisms and intracellular modifications underlying heart failure (HF).

Molecular Mechanisms and Intracellular Modifications Underlying Heart Failure	Studies
- Degeneration of elastin fibers and increase in collagen	[57]
- Clustering and hypertrophy of smooth muscle cells	[57]
- Endothelial dysfunction, which affects the production of NO and other peptides	[57]
- Myocardial interstitial fibrosis, calcium deposition, and amyloid accumulations	[8]
- Upregulation of the activin/ActRII pathway and TLR signaling	[59,62,63]