Table 1.
Summary of viral coinfection *.
| Coinfecting Viruses | Outcome | Method(s) of Detection | Method(s) of Purification | Cause Mechanisms | Effect on Host | Reference (Published Year) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| HIV and HBV | NA | liver biopsies | NA | NA | Occurrence of complications and increased incidence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NALFD) | [189] (2021) |
| COVID-19 and CoV 229E/OC43, AdV, HRV, FluA | Independence | MRT-qPCR | NA | NA | No obvious trend change | [190] (2021) |
| HPIV and HRV, RSV, AdV, HCoV, HboV, FluB, HMPV, FluA | NA | multiplex PCR | NA | NA | Alleviation of clinical symptoms in coinfection hosts | [191] (2019) |
| HBV and HCV | Noninterference (in vitro) coinfection interfered HBV (in vivo) |
PCR, serologic profiles | NA | MiRNA 122 mediated by HCV core protein inhibits HBV replication. | A faster progression and high incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma | [192] (2018) |
| DENV, CHIKV, and ZIKV | NA | MRT-qPCR | NA | NA | Mean viraemia was significantly lower in coinfections compared to monoinfections. ZIKV- DENV coinfection did not significantly differ from reported ZIKV monoinfections. Coinfection by ZIKV–CHIKV could affect foetal death | [141] (2019) |
| FluA and hPIV2 | coinfection enhanced FluA | Virus titration and Immunofluorescent staining | Cell fusion induced by hPIV2 infection promotes FluA replication. | NA | [9] (2016) |
|
| FluA and FluB | Noninterference | RT-PCR | Using Embryonating Chicken Eggs | NA | Patients presented typical influenza-like disease symptoms including fever > 39°C, myalgia, pharyngitis, and cough. | [193] (2013) |
| HBV, HCV, and HDV | Interference (HCV to HBV) Noninterference (HDV to HBV) |
hepatitis B surface antigen loss rates | NA | NA | NA | [194] (2011) |
| RV and FluA | coinfection interfered FluA | Virus titration | NA | RV inhibits FluA replication by activating innate immune defense. | Reduced mortality in mice | [22] (2018) |
| SARS-CoV-2 and FluA | NA | Virus titration | NA | Coinfections caused severe lymphopenia in peripheral blood, resulting in reduced total IgG, neutralizing antibody titers, and CD4+ T cell responses against each virus. | The coinfection of SARS-CoV-2 with IAV enhanced disease severity. | [195] (2022) |
| Leprosy virus and HIV | Noninterference | clinical form and type of leprosy reaction | NA | HIV coinfected patients and patients with leprosy alone expressed similar levels of IL-1β and IL-6. | No change in tissue immunological behavior in patients coinfected with HIV and leprosy. | [196] (2017) |
| MDV and REV | Synergy | Confocal imaging, Western blotting, and qRT-PCR | Using the pfu and TCID50 methods | Two virus synergistic replication in vitro is related to innate immune pathway, Akt pathway, and cell adhesion and migration pathway. | Coinfection with Marek’s disease virus (MDV) and reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV) causes synergistic pathogenic effects and serious losses to the poultry industry. | [112] (2022) |
| DNV and CHIKV | Noninterference | RT-qPCR | NA | NA | The viruses could stably co-exist both in the cell lines and adult mosquitoes. | [100] (2010) |
| DNV and DENV | Interference (DNV to DENV) | Immunostaining for flow cytometry | Cell inoculated virus | NA | NA | [102] (2004) |
| DENV, DNV and JEV | Noninterference | Flow cytometry and IFA | Cell inoculated virus | NA | Triple co-infections of viruses can be easily established without signs of disease in C6/36 mosquito cells by sequential viral challenge followed by serial split passage of whole cells. | [197] (2010) |
| IBV and APV | Interference (IBV to APV) | RT-PCR | NA | NA | NA | [198] (2001) |
| IBV and NDV | Interference (IBV to NDV) | qRT-PCR | NA | NA | NA | [199] (2007) |
| HPAIV and NDV | Interference (NDV to HPAIV) | Virus titration | NA | This viral interference is titer dependent. | HPAIV replication was affected and an increase in survival was found in all coinfected groups when compared to the HPAIV single-inoculated group. | [148] (2016) |
| SINV and LACV | BHK cell: Enhancement(both SINV and LACV) C6/36 cell: coinfection don’t affect LACV; enhanced SINV |
qRT-PCR | CPE | NA | NA | [149] (2014) |
| Sindbis Virus and other alphaviruses | Interference | Plaque assays | NA | This interference depends on a central role for the alphavirus trans-acting protease that processes the nonstructural proteins. | Mosquito cells persistently infected with Sindbis virus are broadly able to exclude other alphaviruses |
[40] (1997) |
| WNV and CxFV | Noninterference (in vitro) Coinfection enhanced WNV (in vivo) |
Plaque assays, qRT-PCR, and IFA | NA | The WNV titer in CxFV Izabal (+) C6/36 cells did not reach the maximum titer observed in CxFV Izabal (−) cells due to death of cells caused by CxFV Izabal. | NA | [10] (2010) |
| AIV and NDV | Interference | RT-PCR and serology | NA | NA | Coinfection with LPAIV had no impact on clinical signs; ducks coinfected with HPAIV survived for shorter duration. | [200] (2015) |
| HSV and VZV | Interference (superinfection exclusion, SE) | Laser confocal | Fluorescent virus rescue | The downregulation of heparan sulfate proteoglycan 2 (HSPG2) that alphaherpesvirus receptor may partially account for the exclusion. | NA | [201] (2014) |
| HMPV and HRSV | NA | ELISA and RT-PCR | NA | NA | Increased hospitalization rates | [144] (2005) |
| HCV and TTV | NA | PCR-HMA | NA | A generic method based upon PCR and heteroduplex mobility analysis (HMA) can be used to rapidly determine coinfection with two strains of the homologous virus. | NA | [202] (2000) |
| GaHV-1 and FWPV | NA | PCR | Using Embryonating Chicken Eggs and CPE | NA | NA | [203] (2010) |
| WSSV and IHHNV | NA | PCR and histopathology | NA | NA | Except for typical clinical symptoms of WSSV infection, coinfected shrimps did not have any other external deformities. | [204] (2014) |
| lvCIAV and iIBDV | Synergy | PCR, RT-PCR and ELISA | NA | LvCIAV infection attenuated subsequent iIBDV infection-induced T cell recruitment and subsequent B cell depletion in the bursa. | Without occurrence of clinical signs | [205] (2013) |
| Multiple coronaviruses | Noninterference | RT-PCR | NA | Bats are natural hosts of coronavirus and potential zoonotic sources of viral pathogens. | NA | [206] (2016) |
| HAdV, HEV, RSV and HRV | Noninterference | xTAG RVP Fast v2 and qRT-PCR | NA | NA | Lower frequency of lower respiratory tract infections, lower wheezing rates and higher hospitalization rates | [207] (2016) |
| HIV and FluA | Synergy | NA | NA | NA | Higher risk of influenza infection | [208] (2016) |
| PCV2 and CSFV | NA | proteomic profiling | NA | Mitochondrial dysfunction, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-mediated oxidative stress response and apoptosis signaling pathways might be the specifical targets during PCV2-CSFV coinfection. | NA | [209] (2017) |
| PPRV and FMDV | Interference | qPT-PCR | Plaque assays, neutralization with antibodies and Viral RNA transfection | NA | NA | [130] (2016) |
| RSV and FluA | Interference | Virus titration and IFA | NA | FluA blocks the growth of RSV by competing with RSV for protein synthesis and selective budding. | NA | [210] (2000) |
| Two different FluA | Interference | Virus titration, RT-PCR and qRT-PCR | Plaque assays | H3N2 and H1N1 have different abilities to inhibit the replication and transmission of their respective drug-resistant virus mutants. | NA | [211] (2010) |
| PRRSV and SIV | Interference | IFA and qRT-PCR | Plaque assays and cell inoculated virus | PRRSV and SIV demonstrate additive effects on the expression of several types of virally induced transcripts. | NA | [212] (2014) |
| Two different VACV | Synergy (lung) Interference (spleen) |
qPCR | NA | NA | NA | [136] (2018) |
| Two different WNV | Interference | Virus titration | NA | This interference depends on blocking the transmission of superinfecting virus. | NA | [213] (1969) |
| SLEV and WNV | Interference | qRT-PCR | NA | This interference depends on blocking the transmission of superinfecting virus. | NA | [214] (2009) |
| DENV1 and DENV3 | Interference | IFA | NA | This interference depends on blocking the transmission of superinfecting virus. | NA | [215] (1982) |
* Abbreviations: MRT-qPCR, multiplex reverse-transcription quantitative real-time PCR; HIV, Human immunodeficiency virus; HBV, Hepatitis B virus; HCV, Hepatitis C virus; HDV, Hepatitis D virus; HBoV human bocavirus; COVID-19, CoV 229E/OC43, SARS-CoV-2, HCoV, human coronavirus; AdV, human mastadenovirus A; HRV, Human rhinovirus B; FluA, Influenza A virus; FluB, influenza B virus; HPIV, human parainfluenza virus; RSV, respiratory syncytial virus; HMPV, human metapneumovirus; DENV, dengue virus; CHIKV, chikungunya virus; ZIKV, zika virus; hPIV2, human parainfluenza virus type 2; RV, Rhinovirus; MDV, Marek’s disease virus; REV, reticuloendotheliosis virus; DNV, densonucleosis viruses; CHIKV, Chikungunya fever virus; JEV, Japanese encephalitis virus; IBV, infectious bronchitis virus; APV, avian pneumovirus; NDV, Newcastle disease virus; AIV, Avian Influenza Virus; HPAIV, highly pathogenic AIV; SINV, Sindbis virus; LACV, La Crosse virus; WNV, West Nile virus; CxFV, Culex flavivirus; HSV, herpes simplex virus; VZV, Varicella-zoster virus; HRSV, human respiratory syncytial virus; TTV, Torque teno sus virus; GaHV-1, gallid herpesvirus 1; FWPV, fowlpox virus; WSSV, white spot syndrome virus; IHHNV, infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus; lvCIAV, low virulent T-lymphotropic chicken infectious anemia virus; iIBDV, intermediate B-lymphotropic infectious bursal disease virus; HAdV, human adenoviruses; HEV, human enterovirus; PCV2. porcine circovirus type 2; CSFV, classical swine fever virus; PPRV, peste des petits ruminants virus; FMDV, foot-and-mouth disease virus; PRRSV, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus; SIV, swine influenza virus; VACV, vaccinia virus; SLEV, St. Louis encephalitis virus.