Table 1.
Maternal and offspring characteristics.
| Characteristics | Control (n = 37) | GDM (n = 30) | p | p adjusted |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal age | 34.92 (3.75) | 35.33 (5.21) | 0.707 | - |
| Parity (%) Nulliparous Multiparous |
20 (54.1) 17 (45.9) |
23 (76.7) 7 (23.3) |
0.096 |
- |
| Mode of delivery (%) Spontaneous C-section |
29 (78.4) 8 (21.6) |
13 (43.3) 17 (56.7) |
0.007 |
- |
| Pre-gestational BMI (kg/m2) | 22.7 [20.7, 27.7] | 25.1 [22.6, 31.0] | 0.041 | - |
| Total gestational weight gain (kg) | 12.0 [10.5, 14.6] | 10.6 [8.9, 12.2] | 0.002 | - |
| Third trimester gestational weight gain (kg) | 4.9 [3.5, 6.7] | 3.8 [2.1, 4.9] | 0.021 | - |
| GWG category (%) Insufficient Appropriate Excessive |
11 (31.4) 13 (37.1) 11 (31.4) |
13 (43.3) 10 (33.3) 7 (23.3) |
0.586 |
- |
| Educational level (%) A-level Secondary school diploma None |
29 (78.4) 8 (21.6) 0 (0) |
15 (50.0) 13 (43.3) 2 (6.7) |
0.021 |
- |
| GDM Treatment (%) None Nutritional therapy Insulin therapy |
- |
1 (3.3) 21 (70.0) 8 (26.7) |
- |
- |
| Gestational age at OGTT # | 27.4 (2.1) | 27 (1.6) | 0.508 | - |
| Insulin sensitivity (NEFA-ISI) # | 3.49 [3.11, 4.57] | 2.48 [2.11, 3.26] | 0.003 | - |
| Triglycerides (mg/dL) # | 178 (86) | 245 (104) | 0.013 | - |
| Habitual physical activity index # | 8.16 (1.51) | 7.38 (1.44) | 0.075 | - |
| Birth outcome | ||||
| Sex (%) Female Male |
20 (54.1) 17 (45.9) |
13 (43.3) 17 (56.7) |
0.464 |
- |
| Gestational age at birth (weeks) | 39.37 (1.55) | 38.61 (1.99) | 0.086 | - |
| Birth weight (g) | 3360 [3100, 3610] | 3360 [2985, 3633] | 0.940 | 0.683 † |
| Birth length (cm) | 51 [49, 53] | 51 [49, 53] | 0.804 | 0.524 † |
| Macrosomia (%) yes no |
4 (10.8) 33 (89.2) |
1 (3.3) 29 (96.7) |
0.49 |
- |
| Breastfeeding (%) yes no |
32 (86.7) 5 (13.5) |
26 (86.7) 4 (13.3) |
1.000 |
- |
| Follow up | ||||
| Offspring age (months) | 25.19 (1.73) | 25.70 (1.64) | 0.223 | - |
| Weight (kg) | 12.54 (1.36) | 13.10 (1.80) | 0.149 | 0.43 ‡ |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 16.41 (1.11) | 16.11 (1.23) | 0.310 | 0.14 ‡ |
| Body fat (%) | 21.11 (6.8) | 19.13 (7.3) | 0.334 | 0.46 ‡ |
| BMI-for-age z-score | 0.42 (0.81) | 0.13 (0.97) | 0.179 | - |
Data are presented as means (SD), medians [IQR], and numbers (%). Group differences were tested with t-test for normally distributed variables, Kruskal–Wallis-test for non-normally distributed variables, and Chi2-test for categorical variables. Bold values indicate statistical significance, and italic values indicate statistical trend. GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus. # N = 56; † Adjusted for gestational age at birth and sex; ‡ adjusted for age and sex.