Table 1.
| Element Characterized | Technique | Information Obtained |
|---|---|---|
| Biofilm | Epifluorescence microscopy (EFM) | -Morphological observations of biofilm |
| Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) | -3D structure of the biofilm | |
| Electron microscopy (e.g., SEM and TEM) | -SEM enables imaging complex structures of biofilm -TEM enables the visualization of cross-sectional details of microorganisms -Mapping distribution of macromolecular subcomponents |
|
| Atomic force microscopy (AFM) | -Biofilm surface topography | |
| X-ray microscopy | -Revealing the onset of bacterial colonization | |
| FTIR spectroscopy | -Analyzing microbial aggregates -Provides information about the chemical nature of foulants |
|
| Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) | -Reveals the impact of biofouling on hydrodynamics and mass transport | |
| Microbial community | Epifluorescence microscopy (EFM) with staining | -Microbial activity -Cell counts -2D distribution of bacteria in biofilm |
| Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) | -3D structure of bacteria | |
| Heterotrophic plate counts (HPCs) | -Monitoring general bacteriological water quality | |
| Flow cytometry | -Species abundance and population dynamics | |
| Extracellular Polymeric Substance (EPS) matrix | Phenol/sulfuric acid assay | -Carbohydrates quantification |
| Lowry/Bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay | -Protein quantification |