TABLE 3.
Associations between adverse experiences at age 1 and childhood cognitive development among children in Young Lives study; Adversity in infancy and childhood cognitive development in four developing countries (Ethiopia, India, Peru, and Vietnam—2002–2009).
| Adversity score based on all variables a | Adversity score based on exogeneous variables b | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PPVT score at age 5 | PPVT score at age 8 | Change in PPVT score | PPVT score at age 5 | PPVT score at age 8 | Change in PPVT score | |
| AE_1 Category | ||||||
| None | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Mild (1) | −0.06** | −0.01 | −0.02 | −0.04 | −0.02 | −0.04 |
| [−0.12, −0.00] | [−0.07, 0.05] | [−0.09, 0.05] | [−0.10, 0.01] | [−0.07, 0.04] | [−0.10, 0.03] | |
| Moderate (2–3) | −0.09*** | 0.01 | 0.02 | −0.09*** | −0.02 | 0.01 |
| [−0.15, −0.03] | [−0.05, 0.07] | [−0.05, 0.10] | [−0.15, −0.04] | [−0.08, 0.04] | [−0.06, 0.09] | |
| High (4+) | −0.09** | −0.15*** | −0.16*** | −0.01 | −0.12** | −0.14** |
| [−0.17, −0.01] | [−0.23, −0.07] | [−0.25, −0.07] | [−0.10, 0.08] | [−0.22, −0.03] | [−0.25, −0.03] | |
| Age of the child | 0.05*** | 0.04*** | 0.01*** | 0.05*** | 0.04*** | 0.01*** |
| [0.04, 0.06] | [0.04, 0.05] | [0.00, 0.02] | [0.04, 0.06] | [0.04, 0.05] | [0.00, 0.02] | |
| Female | −0.06** | −0.08*** | 0.00 | −0.05** | −0.07*** | 0.00 |
| [−0.10, −0.01] | [−0.12, −0.03] | [−0.06, 0.05] | [−0.10, −0.01] | [−0.12, −0.03] | [−0.05, 0.05] | |
| Family size | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.01 | −0.01* | 0.00 |
| [−0.02, 0.00] | [−0.02, 0.00] | [−0.01, 0.01] | [−0.02, 0.00] | [−0.02, 0.00] | [−0.01, 0.01] | |
| Mother Education | ||||||
| None | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | [0.00, 0.00] | [0.00, 0.00] | [0.00, 0.00] |
| Primary | 0.17*** | 0.17*** | 0.03 | 0.17*** | 0.17*** | 0.04 |
| [0.11, 0.23] | [0.11, 0.23] | [−0.04, 0.11] | [0.11, 0.23] | [0.11, 0.24] | [−0.04, 0.11] | |
| Secondary | 0.54*** | 0.48*** | 0.01 | 0.54*** | 0.48*** | 0.01 |
| [0.46, 0.62] | [0.40, 0.56] | [−0.09, 0.11] | [0.46, 0.62] | [0.40, 0.56] | [−0.08, 0.11] | |
| Religion | ||||||
| Non-Christian | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Christian | 0.12** | −0.04 | 0.01 | 0.12** | −0.04 | 0.01 |
| [0.02, 0.22] | [−0.14, 0.06] | [−0.12, 0.13] | [0.02, 0.22] | [−0.15, 0.06] | [−0.12, 0.13] | |
| Residence | ||||||
| Urban | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Rural | −0.28*** | −0.19*** | 0.13*** | −0.28*** | −0.20*** | 0.12** |
| [−0.36, −0.20] | [−0.27, −0.11] | [0.04, 0.22] | [−0.36, −0.21] | [−0.28, −0.12] | [0.03, 0.21] | |
| Wealth Quantiles | ||||||
| Q1 | Ref. | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Q2 | 0.09*** | 0.22*** | 0.17*** | 0.09*** | 0.23*** | 0.17*** |
| [0.03, 0.15] | [0.16, 0.29] | [0.09, 0.24] | [0.03, 0.15] | [0.16, 0.29] | [0.10, 0.25] | |
| Q3 | 0.19*** | 0.42*** | 0.24*** | 0.20*** | 0.42*** | 0.24*** |
| [0.12, 0.26] | [0.34, 0.49] | [0.15, 0.33] | [0.12, 0.27] | [0.35, 0.50] | [0.15, 0.33] | |
| Q4 | 0.57*** | 0.62*** | 0.23*** | 0.58*** | 0.62*** | 0.24*** |
| [0.48, 0.66] | [0.53, 0.71] | [0.13, 0.34] | [0.48, 0.67] | [0.53, 0.72] | [0.13, 0.35] | |
| Country Fixed Effects | ||||||
| Ethiopia | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| India | 0.08 | −0.12** | −0.07 | 0.08 | −0.11* | −0.05 |
| [−0.03, 0.19] | [−0.24, −0.01] | [−0.20, 0.07] | [−0.03, 0.20] | [−0.23, 0.00] | [−0.19, 0.09] | |
| Peru | −0.49*** | −0.44*** | −0.03 | −0.48*** | −0.42*** | 0.00 |
| [−0.37, −0.13] | [−0.52, −0.37] | [−0.12, 0.06] | [−0.56, −0.40] | [−0.50, −0.35] | [−0.09, 0.08] | |
| Vietnam | −0.25*** | −0.40*** | −0.14* | −0.24*** | −0.38*** | −0.12 |
| [−0.97, −0.58] | [−0.53, −0.27] | [−0.29, 0.01] | [−0.36, −0.12] | [−0.51, −0.26] | [−0.27, 0.04] | |
| Total | 6021 | 6078 | 5681 | 6021 | 6078 | 5681 |
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.005; and *p < 0.01, AE_1 indicates Adverse Experiences at age 1, PPVT, peabody picture vocabulary test.
a
All variables in Table 1 were used in the calculation of the aggregate adversity score.
b
Potentially endogenous variables from Table 1 were excluded from the calculation of the aggregate adversity score.