TABLE 5.
Associations between adverse experiences in infancy and childhood cognitive development among children in Young Lives study by individual country; Adversity in infancy and childhood cognitive development in four developing countries (Ethiopia, India, Peru, and Vietnam—2002–2009).
| Adversity score based on all variables a | Adversity score based on exogenous variables b | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PPVT score at age 5 | PPVT score at age 8 | Change in PPVT Score | PPVT score at age 5 | PPVT score at age 8 | Change in PPVT Score | |
| Ethiopia | ||||||
| AE_1 score categoriesc | ||||||
| None (0) | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Moderate (1) | −1.71 | −5.2 | −0.12 | −0.15 | −5.59 | −0.16 |
| [−5.20, 1.78] | [13.97, 3.57] | [−0.38, 0.13] | [−2.65, 2.35] | [−12.43, 1.24] | [−0.36, 0.04] | |
| High (2+) | −0.91 | −5.56 | −0.17 | −0.15 | −6.34* | −0.20** |
| [−3.48, 1.67] | [12.91, 1.78] | [−0.38, 0.05] | [−2.01, 1.72] | [−12.76, 0.07] | [−0.39, −0.01] | |
| India | ||||||
| AE_1 score category | ||||||
| None (0) | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Moderate (1) | −1.55 | 0.01 | 0.02 | −1.06 | −1.17 | 0.00 |
| [−3.88, 0.77] | [−3.54, 3.56] | [−0.12, 0.15] | [−3.42, 1.30] | [−4.60, 2.26] | [−0.13, 0.12] | |
| High (2+) | −3.79*** | −2.80* | −0.07 | −1.44 | −0.99 | −0.01 |
| [−5.92, −1.66] | [−6.12, 0.52] | [−0.19, 0.06] | [−3.47, 0.59] | [−4.41, 2.43] | [−0.14, 0.12] | |
| Peru | ||||||
| AE_1 score category | ||||||
| None (0) | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Moderate (1) | −0.07 | 0.02 | −0.01 | 0.21 | 0.27 | 0.00 |
| [−1.35, 1.20] | [−1.43, 1.48] | [−0.12, 0.09] | [−1.00, 1.42] | [−1.13, 1.67] | [−0.10, 0.11] | |
| High (2+) | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.17 | 1.41 | 0.10 |
| [−1.51, 1.53] | [−1.74, 1.79] | [−0.14, 0.13] | [−1.65, 1.98] | [−0.60, 3.43] | [−0.05, 0.25] | |
| Vietnam | ||||||
| AE_1 score category | ||||||
| None (0) | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Moderate (1) | −1.93** | 0.09 | 0.01 | −2.54*** | −0.80 | −0.04 |
| [3.50, −0.37] | [−2.44, 2.62] | [−0.09, 0.11] | [−4.08, −1.00] | [−3.32, 1.73] | [−0.14, 0.06] | |
| High (2+) | −3.37*** | −0.39 | 0.01 | −2.52*** | −1.19 | −0.01 |
| [5.09, −1.64] | [−3.11, 2.34] | [−0.10, 0.11] | [−4.39, −0.65] | [−4.33, 1.95] | [−0.14, 0.11] | |
Results were adjusted for age, sex, family size, maternal education, urban/rural residence, religion, and wealth, ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.005; and *p < 0.01, AE_1 indicates Adverse Experiences at age 1, PPVT, peabody picture vocabulary Test.
a
All variables in Table 1 were used in the calculation of the aggregate adversity score.
b
Potentially endogenous variables from Table 1 were excluded from the calculation of the aggregate adversity score.