Table 2.

Artificial intelligence applications using dentomaxillofacial imaging data

Category	Artificial intelligence application
Dental caries	Detection of dental caries 18–21
Periodontal evaluation	Detection of periodontal bone loss 22,23
	Measurement and staging of periodontal bone loss 24,25
	Classification of periodontitis stages 26,27
	Identification of periodontally compromised teeth 28,29
Endodontic evaluation	Detection, classification, and measurement of apical pathologies 30,31
	Detection of vertical root fractures 32,33
	Detection 34 and classification 35,36 of C-shaped canals
Dental implants	Detection of peri-implant bone loss 37
	Measurement of the peri-implant bone loss ratio and classification of the bone loss severity 38
	Detection of the edentulous sites, nasal fossa, maxillary sinus, and mandibular canal, and measurement of the heights and widths of residual alveolar bone at the edentulous sites 39
	Classification of dental implant systems 40–42
	Detection and classification of dental implant fractures 43
Third molars	Classification of positional relationships between lower third molars and the mandibular canal 44–46
	Prediction of extraction difficulty for lower third molars 47
	Prediction of paresthesia after third molar extraction 48
Radiolucent lesions in the jaws	Detection and segmentation of infections, granuloma, cysts, and tumors in the jaws 49
	Detection of ameloblastomas and odontogenic keratocysts 50
	Detection/classification of ameloblastomas, odontogenic keratocysts, dentigerous cysts, radicular cysts, and/or bone cysts in the maxilla/mandible 51,52
	Differentiation of Stafne’s bone cavity from mandibular radiolucent lesions 53
Maxillary sinus	Detection of maxillary sinus lesions 54,55
	Detection and segmentation of maxillary sinus lesions 56,57
	Prediction of oroantral communication after tooth extraction 58
Orthodontic and orthognathic evaluation	Localization of cephalometric landmarks 59–64
	Classification of skeletal malocclusion 65–67
	Assessment of facial symmetry before and after orthognathic surgery 68
Temporomandibular joint	Diagnosis of temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis 69
	Diagnosis of mandibular condyle fractures 70
	Measurement of the cortical thickness of mandibular condyle head 71
Maxillofacial fracture	Detection and classification of mandibular fracture 72
Sialoliths	Detection of submandibular gland sialoliths 73
Osteoporosis	Diagnosis and prediction of osteoporosis 74,75
Sjögren’s syndrome	Diagnosis of Sjögren’s syndrome 76
Lymph node metastasis	Segmentation and identification of metastatic cervical lymph nodes 77
Reporting of the dental status	Segmentation of teeth and jaws, numbering of teeth, detection of caries, periapical lesions, and periodontitis 78
	Identification of missing tooth, caries, filling, prosthetic restoration, endodontically treated tooth, residual root, periapical lesion, and periodontal bone loss 79
	Tooth numbering and detection of dental implants, prosthetic crowns, fillings, root remnants, and root canal treatment 80
	Detection, segmention, and labeling of teeth, crowns, fillings, root canal fillings, implants, and root remnants 81,82
	Tooth detection and numbering 83,84
	Tooth segmentation and classification 85,86
Image quality improvement	Correction of blurred panoramic radiographic images 87
	Reduction of metal artifacts on CBCT images 88
	Improvement of the resolution of CT/CBCT images 89–91
Multimodal image registration	Registration of CBCT with intra oral scan, 92 optical dental model scan, 93 or MRI 94