Table 2.

Macrophage and macrophage-derived exosome membrane surface markers that may contribute to nanomaterials’ application

Membrane source	Specific marker	Ligands	Function	Refs.
Macrophage membrane	Integrin α4β1	VCAM-1	Cell adhesion molecule: actively bind to VCAM-1 on cancer cell	[33, 35, 40, 53, 66, 110, 111, 114, 115, 132, 149, 155, 165, 168]
	MAC-1	VCAM-1	Bind to flamed HUVECs or tumor tissue	[132, 139, 168]
	CD47	SIRP-α receptor	Prevent the undesirable phagocytosis by inhibiting binding to receptor SIRP-α pathway	[111, 114, 115, 165]
	CCR2	CCL2	Promote the recruitment of monocytes to “home” the inflammatory lesion	[112, 165]
	CD36	Receptor for oxLDL	Target oxLDL	[112]
	TNFR2	TNF	Adsorb cytokines	[112, 162]
	CD66a	Spike protein receptor	Target and bind to the Spike protein of coronavirus	[36, 102]
	CD126	IL-6 receptor	Adsorb cytokines	[36, 94, 102, 162]
	CD119	IFN-γ receptor	Adsorb cytokines	[36, 94, 102]
	CD135	Tyrosine kinase 3 receptor	Directly bind extracellular ligands and transduce regulatory signals	[68, 88]
	CD309	VEGF receptor	Bind to VEGF and induce cell proliferation and migration	[68]
	CD44	Extracellular matrix components and messenger molecules	Promote tumor progression and metastasis	[68, 139]
	CSF1R	CSF1	Activates the downstream signaling pathway responsible for the polarization of TAMs to the immunosuppressive phenotype	[75]
	TLR2/4	LPS receptor	Recognize LPS of Gram-negative bacteria and activates NF-κB	[94, 97, 166]
	F4/80	EGF receptor	Macrophage markers in mature mice and cell-to-cell interactions	[75, 127, 140, 166]
	CD206	Mannose receptors	M2 marker	[75, 116, 140, 166]
	CD11a/b/c	ICAMs	Mediate cell adhesion	[75, 84, 127, 166]
	CD14	LPS receptor	Recognize LPS of Gram-negative bacteria and activates NF-κB	[94]
	CD130	IL6/IL6R complex	Signal-transducing molecule	[94]
	CD120a/b	TNF-α/β	Adsorb cytokines and activate macrophage	[94]
	CD68	-	Macrophage marker	[140]
Exosomes derived from macrophages	Arginase-1	Arginine	M2 marker	[137]
	CD163	Bacterial; LPS	M2 marker; participation in immunization	[116, 137]
	CD9	-	Anti-inflammation marker; cell adhesion; cell motility; tumor metastasis	[65, 150, 173]
	LAMP2	Lectin -1/3 receptor	Cell adhesion; tumor metastasis	[173]
	ALIX	-	Involved in exosome biogenesis	[71, 173]
	TSG101	-	Exosome marker	[65, 71, 84, 131, 136, 171, 173]
	CD63	-	Exosome specific marker	[71, 116, 131, 136, 150]
	Calnexin	Lectin receptor	Endoplasmic reticulum marker	[136]
	CD81	-	Exosome marker	[65, 150, 171]
	Flotillin-1	-	Involved in exosome biogenesis	[84, 171]