Prom, Graduation and Parties: Alcohol Use and Normative Perceptions Among High School Seniors During Specific Events

Abstract

Background:

Previous research has shown that a majority of adolescents in the United States initiate and drink alcohol prior to graduating high school and nearly twenty percent of high school seniors engage in heavy episodic drinking. Despite anecdotal evidence and media portrayals of alcohol use during high school events (e.g., prom), little is understood about alcohol use surrounding specific events that may be identified as “high-risk” events and addressed in specific interventions. Similarly, normative perceptions exert powerful influence on behaviors but little is understood about normative perceptions of alcohol use at high school events.

Objectives:

The purpose of the present study was to understand whether high school alcohol use is associated with specific events by describing behaviors and normative perceptions.

Methods:

Participants were 386 U.S. college students age 18 to 19 (60.4% female, mean age = 18.4) who provided retrospective accounts of their alcohol use surrounding senior year high school events (either before, which is relevant to pregaming addressed in this special issue, during, or after).

Results:

Most students did not drink surrounding high school events but nearly all reported that they perceived that the typical high school senior did. Those who did drink alcohol tended to drink heavily, particularly during prom. Alcohol use was associated with other high school events ranging from the beginning of senior year (e.g., Homecoming) though the end (e.g., graduation parties).

Conclusions:

Results indicate the importance of future research efforts tailoring intervention efforts around specific events and the applicability of personalized normative feedback approaches.

Introduction

Over 60% of adolescents in the United States report drinking alcohol prior to leaving high school (Johnston et al., 2020a) and 14% of U.S. 12th graders consumed 5+ drinks at least once in the past two weeks (Patrick & Terry-McElrath, 2019). White students and males have historically been at greater risk for alcohol use though differences based on sex have narrowed recently (Johnston et al., 2020b). Adolescent alcohol use is prevalent internationally as well with 56% of adolescents across 84 countries reporting lifetime alcohol use and 15% engaging in heavy episodic drinking (5+ drinks) in the past 30 days (Noel, 2019). Alcohol use can contribute to academic struggles, driving-related risks, health effects, and social/interpersonal impacts (Dupont, et al., 2013; HHS 2016, 2018; White & Hingson, 2013). While rates of alcohol use in U.S. high schools are well documented, less is known about circumstances and contexts wherein high school drinking occurs.

Researchers have studied event-specific drinking among college students on occasions such as 21^st birthdays, spring break, campus-specific events, and holidays (e.g., Henslee et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2009; Lewis et al., 2009; Neighbors et al., 2011). A key component of event-specific drinking is pregaming, a risky practice typically involving drinking large quantities of alcohol in a compressed period before a specific event (DeJong et al., 2010). To date, however, event-specific drinking in U.S. high school students has not been well studied.¹ Although pregaming does occur among U.S. high school students (e.g., Kenney et al., 2010; Zamboanga et al., 2011), and while the specific events for which students high school students pregame are less understood, evidence suggests high school prom is associated with pregaming (Zamboanga, et al., 2011). Thus, if the risk factors associated with alcohol use surrounding high-risk events, like prom, can be better understood, pregaming associated with these high-risk events can also be addressed. The present study extends event-specific drinking research to focus on retrospective reports of frequency and quantity of drinking as well as normative perceptions of drinking during specific high school events during senior year.

Social learning theory suggests perceptions of peer behaviors such as descriptive norms (e.g., perceived use of alcohol by others) exert powerful influences on personal alcohol use (Brown et al., 2008; Litt & Stock, 2011). Research has reliably demonstrated overestimation of alcohol use among peers, with the greatest misperceptions occurring for heavier drinkers (Baer et al., 1991; Neighbors et al., 2004; Pederson et al., 2017). Identification of drinking tied to anticipated, time-limited, specific events creates opportunity for tailored interventions with potential to reduce a disproportionate share of harms (Neighbors et al., 2007). Efficacious event specific prevention has been implemented in college populations to reduce alcohol use for 21^st birthdays (Neighbors et al., 2009) and spring break (Lee et al., 2014). If high school drinking is similarly tied to specific events and these events are accompanied by an overestimation of drinking behaviors then event-specific intervention efforts applied to high school populations could prove useful in reducing alcohol-related harm.

The purpose of the present study was to identify events associated with alcohol use during senior year in high school, estimate actual prevalence and quantity of alcohol consumed at these events alongside perceived norms, and examine demographic differences in alcohol use and norms during these events. Because alcohol use is proscribed for this population, event-specific drinking was broadly defined as alcohol use before (pregaming), during, and after the event. The goal of this research was to determine whether specific high-risk events would be potential candidates for event specific prevention efforts with high school seniors. We therefore hypothesized that normative perceptions of others’ drinking at high school events will be higher than behavioral reports of actual drinking at these events.

Methods

Participants

Participants were 386 undergraduate students (M_age=18.4 [SD=.49], 60.4% female) from a large U.S. public university in the Pacific Northwest, drawn from a larger study focused on college student alcohol use. Participants were categorized as non-Hispanic Asian (41.5%), non-Hispanic White (37.6%), Hispanic (10.4%) and non-Hispanic Other (10.1%). The University IRB approved all procedures and a federal Certificate of Confidentiality was obtained from the National Institutes of Health.

Procedures

First or second year students were randomly selected from the university’s fall 2019 registrars list and invited by e-mail to complete a brief online survey (45.5% response rate). Students viewed the study information statement and, after consenting, were directed to a confidential online survey and compensated $10 for completion. Present analyses included students between 18-19 years old.

Measures

Demographic Information

Sex assigned at birth, Hispanic/Latino/a status, and racial identity were assessed by three separate items. Participants who identified as Hispanic/Latino/a were subsequently coded as Hispanic, across all races.

Alcohol Use

General alcohol use during senior year was assessed by two items: “During your senior year in high school, how often did you usually have any kind of drink containing alcohol?” (0=”Never” to 7= “Every Day”) and, “During your senior year in high school, how many alcoholic drinks did you have on a typical day when you drank alcohol?” (0 to 25 drinks). Participants were also asked whether they attended specific high school events during senior year including prom, homecoming dance, non-formal dances, graduation parties and sporting events; if they did attend they reported how much alcohol they drank (0 to 25 drinks) before (pregaming), during and after the event (as an event-wide total around the event; time frames were not separately assessed). This holistic approach to event specific drinking encompasses pre-loading (or pregaming), side-loading (drinking that occurs during specified event – on or off site), and back-loading (drinking after a specific event) described by Hughes and Devilly (2021). Finally, participants were asked to identify an “other” specific event, where they felt the typical high school senior drank the most; participants then indicated whether they attended the event and provided number of standard drinks they consumed the day of the event. Open-ended responses were coded independently by two raters and interrater agreement, assessed by Cohen’s κ was almost perfect, κ = .98.

Normative Perceptions

Descriptive normative perceptions of alcohol use were assessed by asking all participants to indicate number of drinks consumed by a “typical high school senior” (0 to 25 drinks) for each of the previously described events.

Results

Over one-third (36.5%) of the sample reported drinking at least once per month during their senior year in high school and 13.2% of the sample indicated they typically drank 5+ drinks when they drank alcohol.²

Alcohol use during high school specific events

More than three-quarters of participants reported attending prom (78.2%), a graduation party (75.6%) or a high school sporting event (78.0%), with over half reporting they attended non-formal dances (50.8%) and homecoming (60.9%). Day-of alcohol use associated with specific high school events was not the norm, with most attendees reporting they did not drink. However, the majority of participants perceived the typical senior did drink the day of these events. Among this sample, 33.8% of prom attendees reported drinking the day of the event, however, 94.0% of all participants believed the typical high school senior drank the day of prom. Among attendees of high school graduation parties, 30.2% reported drinking, yet 86.9% of participants estimated the typical high school senior consumed alcohol the day of these events. Similar gaps existed for other events between reported alcohol use and perceptions of drinking prevalence.³ For those who reported drinking the day of these events, average number of drinks ranged from 3.43 associated with sporting events to 5.38 associated with prom (see Table 1).

Table 1.

Number of standard drinks reported at high school events among those who both attended and drank at event

	All			Males			Females
	N	M	95% CI	N	M	95% CI	N	M	95% CI
High School Event
Prom	102	5.38	[4.72-6.04]	41	6.39	[5.23-7.55]	61	4.70	[3.94-5.47]
Graduation Party	88	4.00	[3.33-4.67]	30	5.03	[3.61-6.45]	58	3.47	[2.76-4.17]
Homecoming	63	4.49	[3.71-5.28]	22	4.82	[2.99-6.65]	41	4.32	[3.55-5.09]
Non-formal Dance	53	4.19	[3.41-4.96]	21	4.86	[3.52-6.19]	32	3.75	[2.78-4.72]
Sporting Events	37	3.43	[2.39-4.48]	18	2.61	[1.72-3.50]	19	4.21	[2.32-6.10]

Note. Males reported drinking significantly more than females at prom and graduation parties, p < .05. “Drank at event” encompasses any preloading, side-loading, and back-loading.

Demographic differences in alcohol use during specific events

Table 2 displays prevalence of any drinking at high school events and percentage who believe the “typical senior” drank on the day of prom and graduation parties, broken down by demographics. Across all events and demographic groups, participants overestimated that the “typical” senior drank on the day of an event compared to actual self-reported drinking behavior. Significant differences in demographic groups are highlighted below.

Table 2.

Prevalence and perception of any alcohol use at senior year high school events

	Alcohol Use			Normative Perceptions
	N	% Reported Drinking	95% CI	N	% Perceived “Typical” Student Drank	95% CI
Prom
All	302	33.8%	[28.4-39.1]	384	94.0%	[91.6-96.4]
Gender
Male	108	38.0%	[28.7-47.3]	153	92.2%	[87.9-96.5]
Female	194	31.4%	[24.9-38.0]	231	95.2%	[92.5-98.0]
Race
White	119	43.7%a	[34.7-52.7]	145	95.2%	[91.6-98.7]
Asian	121	24.79%b	[17.0-32.6]	158	93.0%	[89.0-97.1]
Hispanic	30	36.7%ab	[18.4-55.0]	40	92.5%	[84.0-100]
Other	31	29.0%ab	[12.1-46.0]	39	97.4%	[92.3-100]
Graduation Party
All	291	30.2%	[24.9-35.6]	382	86.9%	[83.5-90.3]
Gender
Male	116	25.9%	[17.8-34.0]	151	88.7%	[83.6-93.8]
Female	175	33.1%	[26.1-40.2]	231	85.7%	[81.2-90.3]
Race
White	116	31.0%	[22.5-39.6]	145	82.07%a	[75.8-88.4]
Asian	114	31.6%	[22.9-40.2]	156	92.31%b	[88.1-96.5]
Hispanic	33	36.4%	[19.0-53.7]	40	82.5%ab	[70.2-94.9]
Other	26	11.5%	[0.0-24.7]	39	89.7%a b	[79.8-99.7]
Homecoming
All	235	26.8%	[21.1-32.5]	385	91.2%	[82.8-94.4]
Gender
Male	81	27.2%	[17.3-37.1]	153	89.5%	[84.6-94.5]
Female	154	26.6%	[19.6-33.7]	233	92.2%	[88.7-95.7]
Race
White	100	34.0%	[24.6-43.5]	145	94.5%	[90.7-98.2]
Asian	84	19.1%	[10.5-27.6]	159	88.1%	[83.0-93.2]
Hispanic	27	37.0%	[17.6-56.5]	40	92.5%	[84.0-100]
Other	23	13.0%	[0.0-27.9]	39	92.3%	[83.6-100]
Non-formal Dance
All	196	27.0%	[20.8-33.3]	382	85.1%	[81.5-88.7]
Gender
Male	69	30.4%	[19.3-41.6]	151	84.8%	[79.0-90.6]
Female	127	25.2%	[17.5-32.9]	231	85.3%	[80.7-89.9]
Race
White	80	36.3%	[25.5-47.0]	145	85.5%	[79.7-91.3]
Asian	74	21.6%	[12.0-31.2]	156	84.0%	[78.2-89.8]
Hispanic	22	27.3%	[7.1-47.5]	40	85.0%	[73.4-96.6]
Other	19	10.5%	[0.0-25.7]	39	89.7%	[79.8-99.7]
Sporting Events
All	296	12.5%	[8.7-16.3]	379	68.6%	[63.9-73.3]
Gender
Male	119	15.1%	[8.6-21.7]	150	68.7%	[61.2-76.2]
Female	177	10.7%	[6.1-15.3]	229	68.6%	[62.5-74.6]
Race
White	119	20.17%a	[12.9-27.5]	145	71.0%	[63.6-78.5]
Asian	116	8.62%b	[3.4-13.8]	153	67.3%	[59.8-74.8]
Hispanic	34	8.8%abc	[0.0-18.9]	40	60.0%	[44.1-75.9]
Other	26	0.0%bc	-	39	74.4%	[60.0-73.4]

Note. Ns for alcohol use at events include all participants who indicated that they attended a particular event. All participants, regardless of event attendance, provided responses about normative perceptions of drinking at events.

^aGroup differs significantly from type (in column) where ^b or ^c is indicated.

Prom.

Among those who attended prom, a main effect for drinking by race was found, F (3, 297) = 3.41, p<.05. Post-hoc comparisons with Bonferroni adjustment indicated White students were significantly more likely to drink on the day of prom than Asian students (see Table 2). With respect to quantity, males who drank on the day of prom reported significantly more drinks than females, F (1, 100) = 6.48, p<.05 (see Table 1).

Graduation Party.

Prevalence of any drinking on the day of a graduation party did not differ by demographic group, however, among those who drank on the day of a graduation party, males reported a higher quantity than females, F (1, 86) = 5.06, p<.05 (see Table 1). A main effect for perceptions of typical student drinking by race was found, F(3, 376)=2.71, p<.05 with Asian and Other race students significantly more likely to report that a typical student drank during day of graduation party than were White students (p < .05).

Sporting Events.

A main effect for drinking by race was found for sporting events, F (3, 291)=4.15, p<.01 with White students reporting significantly high rates of drinking than either Asian or Other race students (p<.05).

Other High School Events.

Participants were asked to identify an event other than ones already discussed where the typical high school senior drinks the most. Most of the sample (86.0%, n=332) specified an event and these were coded into 20 different events. By far the most commonly reported event (45.8%) was “party.” Birthdays (8.1%), holidays (6.0%) senior day/events (5.7%), and hanging out/“kickbacks” (4.8%) rounded out the top five most commonly identified events. Participants who attended the specified event reported fewer drinks across all “other” events (M = 2.06 [95%CI: 1.62-2.50]) compared to perceptions of typical student drinking on the day of these events (M = 4.14 [95%CI: 3.83-4.44]).

Discussion

The present study sought to identify events associated with alcohol use during senior year in high school, examining both drinking behaviors and normative perceptions. Results indicate most students did not drink on the day of the specific high school events we examined. Even on prom day, during which the greatest number of students reported drinking, alcohol was consumed by only one-third of attendees. Yet, students consistently misperceived that the “typical” senior consumed alcohol on the day of these events when, in fact, the “typical” senior in our sample did not report drinking; this misperception presents an opportunity to implement normative feedback interventions. These results are consistent with findings on event-specific drinking in college student populations (e.g., Neighbors et al., 2009).

Alcohol use at prom receives considerable attention in the popular press, yet it has been largely unstudied by researchers. While most who attended high school events did not drink alcohol at them, those who did drink tended to drink heavily; this was particularly true of prom. Our results indicate heavy alcohol use was present at a number of school events ranging from the beginning of senior year (e.g., homecoming) through the end of the year (e.g., graduation), which may represent additional risks related to impaired driving or riding with an impaired driver.

Limitations

Results should be viewed in light of several limitations. First, the study relies upon retrospective accounts of behavior. While students were generally only about a year removed from the events in question, and the events examined represent significant social and developmental events that should improve recall (e.g., timeline follow-back; Sobel & Sobel, 1992), caution should be taken with respect to the accuracy of recall. Further, the estimate of perceived norms was relatively simple (i.e., estimating what the “typical student” did), and future studies could look more closely at actual estimates of prevalence as well as perceptions of behavior by a student of the same age, gender, and/or race/ethnicity. The present sample is limited to those who attended college in the Pacific Northwest and may not generalize to other regions or those who are not college-bound. The present sample contains a significant number of Asian American students, a group that often, as was the case in this study, reports lower rates of alcohol use (e.g., Terry-McElrath & Patrick, 2018). Finally, event-specific drinking was defined broadly to include drinking before, during and after events, so alcohol use before (or pre-gaming) could not be separately considered with these data. Future research should examine timing of drinking to better inform potential intervention efforts and understanding of pregaming versus during and after events.

Conclusion

While it is encouraging that most participants reported not drinking alcohol on the day of these high school events, the overwhelming majority perceived the “typical student” to drink. Prevention efforts addressing misperceived norms surrounding prom could reducing drinking prevalence and quantity around the event. Zamboanga et al. (2011) suggest part of drinking on the day of high school prom involves pregaming. If so, these prevention efforts could extend to reducing pregaming itself, although this would need to be further studied.. For those who make the choice to drink, future research could explore the utility of personalized normative feedback, already successful with high school students (e.g., Doumas et al., 2021), for event-specific prevention. For those who abstain, a positive community norms approach highlighting the choice of the majority (i.e., not drinking at these events), may increase the likelihood that high school students will maintain abstinence (Linkenbach, et al., 2020). These norms-based strategies could be implemented around traditionally high-risk times of year as a form of event-specific prevention, both to maintain the abstinence of those who do not drink and potentially change the behavior of those considering alcohol use.

Highlights.

• Retrospective accounts of high school (HS) events indicated event specific drinking.

• One-third of HS seniors drank before (pregaming), during, or after prom.

• HS seniors misperceive that alcohol use was ubiquitous during specific events.

• Personalized normative feedback interventions may successfully target HS events.