Table 3.
Factors associated with S. pneumoniae carriage.
| Characteristic | Total recovery | Odds ratio | Odds ratio—children under 5-years | Odds ratio—5-years and older | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | N | % | OR | 95%CI | p value | OR | 95%CI | p value | OR | 95%CI | p value | |
| Age (years) | ||||||||||||
| Under 5 | 48 | 183 | (26.2) | 1 | ||||||||
| 5–9 years | 25 | 124 | (20.2) | 0.85 | (0.39–1.86) | 0.683 | ||||||
| 10–19 years | 8 | 101 | (7.9) | 0.17 | (0.05–0.61) | 0.007 | ||||||
| 20–29 years | 6 | 185 | (3.2) | 0.06 | (0.02–0.17) | <0.001 | ||||||
| 30–39 years | 21 | 219 | (9.6) | 0.23 | (0.08–0.66) | 0.007 | ||||||
| 40–49 years | 2 | 87 | (2.3) | 0.11 | (0.02–0.57) | 0.009 | ||||||
| 50–59 years | 6 | 122 | (4.9) | 0.29 | (0.09–0.92) | 0.035 | ||||||
| 60–100 years | 12 | 128 | (9.4) | 0.26 | (0.09–0.71) | 0.009 | ||||||
| Sex | ||||||||||||
| Female | 62 | 590 | (10.5) | 1 | ||||||||
| Male | 66 | 559 | (11.8) | 1.15 | (0.67–1.98) | 0.621 | ||||||
| Highest level of education—children = < 16 years | ||||||||||||
| None | 60 | 243 | (24.7) | 1 | ||||||||
| Primary | 15 | 93 | (16.1) | 0.67 | (0.30–1.47) | 0.315 | ||||||
| Secondary or higher | 6 | 48 | (12.5) | 0.29 | (0.07–1.26) | 0.099 | ||||||
| Highest level of education—adults > 16 years | ||||||||||||
| None | 5 | 147 | (3.4) | 1 | ||||||||
| Primary | 1 | 19 | (5.3) | 0.70 | (0.07–7.17) | 0.759 | ||||||
| Secondary or higher | 40 | 572 | (7.0) | 4.45 | (1.30–15.21) | 0.018 | ||||||
| Occupation | ||||||||||||
| Farmer | 23 | 349 | (6.6) | |||||||||
| Factory worker | 13 | 146 | (8.9) | 0.57 | (0.21–1.53) | 0.264 | ||||||
| Labourer | 6 | 154 | (3.9) | 0.23 | (0.08–0.66) | 0.007 | ||||||
| Other employment | 2 | 50 | (4.0) | 0.82 | (0.13–5.37) | 0.837 | ||||||
| Still in school | 81 | 393 | (20.6) | 2.68 | (1.15–6.24) | 0.022 | ||||||
| Not working | 2 | 41 | (4.9) | 0.20 | (0.04–0.98) | 0.048 | ||||||
| Household wealth quintile | ||||||||||||
| Poorest | 20 | 236 | (8.5) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| Poor | 31 | 221 | (14.0) | 1.20 | (0.42–3.37) | 0.733 | 1.54 | (0.32–7.53) | 0.590 | 1.09 | (0.36–3.35) | 0.880 |
| Middle | 26 | 262 | (9.9) | 1.08 | (0.37–3.14) | 0.891 | 1.65 | (0.40–6.80) | 0.488 | 0.88 | (0.26–3.05) | 0.845 |
| Rich | 28 | 225 | (12.4) | 0.62 | (0.22–1.70) | 0.347 | 0.84 | (0.22–3.15) | 0.789 | 0.51 | (0.16–1.68) | 0.268 |
| Richest | 23 | 205 | (11.2) | 0.97 | (0.35–2.73) | 0.956 | 2.94 | (0.68–12.64) | 0.147 | 0.61 | (0.16–2.29) | 0.465 |
| Swabbing group | ||||||||||||
| Self-administered | 80 | 799 | (10.0) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| HW-administered | 48 | 350 | (13.7) | 2.06 | (1.07–3.96) | 0.031 | 2.14 | (0.73–6.31) | 0.165 | 2.05 | (0.95–4.42) | 0.066 |
| Time to lab | ||||||||||||
| < 8-h | 43 | 386 | (11.1) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| 8 or more hours | 84 | 761 | (11.0) | 0.71 | (0.38–1.34) | 0.297 | 0.63 | (0.19–2.06) | 0.444 | 0.65 | (0.31–1.37) | 0.261 |
| Sample period | ||||||||||||
| Period1 | 18 | 291 | (6.2) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| Period2 | 45 | 373 | (12.1) | 1.89 | (0.75–4.74) | 0.176 | 3.43 | (1.07–11.03) | 0.039 | 1.55 | (0.45–5.41) | 0.486 |
| Period3 | 64 | 484 | (13.2) | 1.85 | (0.73–4.69) | 0.197 | 1.51 | (0.46–4.98) | 0.493 | 2.05 | (0.64–6.58) | 0.226 |
| ARI in the last 2 weeks | ||||||||||||
| No | 102 | 1002 | (10.2) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| Yes | 23 | 96 | (24.0) | 3.13 | (1.38–7.11) | 0.007 | 2.23 | (0.63–7.92) | 0.215 | 2.63 | (0.88–7.86) | 0.084 |
| Antibiotic use for ARI in the last 2 weeks | ||||||||||||
| No | 106 | 1011 | (10.5) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| Yes | 19 | 87 | (21.8) | 3.13 | (1.29–7.57) | 0.012 | 1.98 | (0.52–7.50) | 0.314 | 2.74 | (0.84–8.96) | 0.096 |
| Any antibiotic use in the last month | ||||||||||||
| No | 91 | 928 | (9.8) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| Yes | 34 | 190 | (17.9) | 2.07 | (1.08–3.96) | 0.029 | 1.62 | (0.57–4.56) | 0.362 | 1.25 | (0.43–3.59) | 0.683 |
| Daycare attendance | ||||||||||||
| No | 26 | 108 | (24.1) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| Yes | 22 | 75 | (29.3) | 1.14 | (0.41–3.13) | 0.800 | 1.14 | (0.41–3.13) | 0.800 | 0.93 | (0.44–1.98) | 0.851 |
| Household has child under-5 | ||||||||||||
| No | 23 | 307 | (7.5) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| Yes | 105 | 842 | (12.5) | 1.43 | (0.69–2.97) | 0.329 | 0.27 | (0.16–0.45) | <0.001 | 0.93 | (0.44–1.98) | 0.851 |
| Crowding – more than 2 people per sleeping room | ||||||||||||
| No | 79 | 832 | (9.5) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| Yes | 49 | 317 | (15.5) | 2.05 | (0.98–4.29) | 0.056 | 3.06 | (1.02–9.23) | 0.047 | 1.57 | (0.66–3.75) | 0.308 |
| Indoor smoke | ||||||||||||
| No | 94 | 804 | (11.7) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| Yes | 34 | 345 | (9.9) | 1.35 | (0.67–2.73) | 0.404 | 2.42 | (0.78–7.55) | 0.125 | 1.26 | (0.56–2.85) | 0.570 |
| Handwashing facility with water and soap | ||||||||||||
| No | 13 | 121 | (10.7) | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||||
| Yes | 115 | 1028 | (11.2) | 0.93 | (0.28–3.05) | 0.906 | 2.52 | (0.66–9.67) | 0.177 | 0.74 | (0.20–2.73) | 0.646 |