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. 2022 Dec 15;13:1037750. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2022.1037750

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Copyright © 2022 Kopp.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Pathogenetic model of (smoking-related) non-communicable diseases. Smoking/nicotine can cause non-physiological activation of each of these factors. Note the high degree of interrelations. (Modified from Kopp, 2019).