TABLE 2.
Environmental-induced MIA offspring alterations.
| Paradigm | Species/strain | Gestational exposure | Key offspring observations | References |
| High-fat diet | Mouse/C57BL/6 | 4 weeks prior to gestation, throughout gestation and nurturing till weaning | Exaggerated inflammatory response to peripheral LPS in HFD-exposed M and F offspring Microglia morphology alterations ↑ microglia interactions with astrocytes in hippocampus in M offspring ↓ microglia-associated extracellular space pockets in hippocampus in both M and F ↓ TGFb1, Tmem119, Trem2, Cx3cr1 mRNA levels in hippocampus significantly in M offspring |
Bordeleau et al., 2020 |
| Chronic social instability (CSI) | Mouse/CD1 | 2x/week for 7 weeks prior to gestation | ↑ anxiety and social deficits predominantly inherited by F offspring across 3 generations Complete maternal and paternal transmission of CSI-related deficits can be transmitted to F1 offspring Differential transmission between maternal and paternal line in F2 and F3 generations |
Saavedra-Rodríguez and Feig, 2013 |
| Social isolation rearing | Mouse/C57BL6/N | 10-weeks prior and throughout gestation (GD0-20 ± 1) | M and F offspring ↑ anxiety-like behavior, cognitive impairments, and alterations to amygdalar transcriptome M offspring ↑ robust cognitive impairments in spatial recognition and temporal order memory M offspring ↑ vulnerable to deficits |
Scarborough et al., 2021 |
| Electric shock | Rat/Sprague-Dawley |
Every other day for 10, 90-min sessions during gestation | ↑ secretion of HPA hormones (plasma CORT and ACTH) | Takahashi and Kalin, 1991 |
| Restraint stress | Mouse/C57BL/6 WT C57BL/6 GF CCL2–/– KO |
GD10-16 | WT: ↑ brain IL-6 gene expression, ↑ Ccl2 protein levels, ↓ brain TLR4 gene expression GF: no fetal brain inflammation KO: no change in brain IL-6 gene expression levels, ↓ TLR4 brain gene expression, no sociability, or anxiety-related deficits |
Chen et al., 2020 |
| Noise at 95dB | Rat/Wistar | Third trimester of gestation 1, 2, and 4 h/day for 7 days |
Impaired hippocampal-dependent learning and memory, lower LTP, ↑ corticosterone | Barzegar et al., 2015 |
| Food or water deprivation | Mouse/Rockland-Swiss albino | GD13-18 3 × 30 min sessions/day |
No differences observed in litter size or pup mortality. Pup weight did not significantly differ between additional groups. |
Kinsley and Svare, 1986 |
| Social defeat by resident lactating female | Rat/Sprague-Dawley | GD16-20; 10 min sessions |
↓ female birth weight Exaggerated ACTH and CORT responses to IL-1β immune challenge and restraint stress in both M and F |
Brunton and Russell, 2010 |
| Repeated variable prenatal stress regime | Rat/Sprague-Dawley | GD14-22/23 1−3 sessions/day |
↑ locomotor activity, stereotypic behaviors ↑ sensitivity to amphetamine ↑ aggressive behavior toward adult and juvenile rats of the same gender ↑ delay-dependent deficits in recognition memory |
Wilson and Terry, 2013 |
LPS, lipopolysaccharide; HFD, high fat diet; GD, gestational day; TLR, toll like receptor; TGFb1, transforming growth factor beta 1; Tmem119, transmembrane protein 119; Trem2, triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2; Cx3cr1, CX3C chemokine receptor 1; IL-6, interleukin-6; Ccl2, chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2; IL-1β, interleukin 1 beta; HPA, hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal; CORT, corticosterone; ACTH, adrenocorticotrophic hormone; WT, wild type; GF, germ free; KO, knockout; LTP, long-term potentiation; M, male; F, female.