Table 3.

Chemicals modulating autophagy and acting on ciliogenesis.

CHEMICALS MODULATING AUTOPHAGY	DEFINITION	EFFECTS ON AUTOPHAGY	MECHANISM OF ACTION ON AUTOPHAGY	EFFECTS ON CILIOGENESIS	CELL LINE	REF
Krebs-Ringer bicarbonate (KRB) buffer	Buffer without serum and glucose	Activator	Nutrient starvation	Induces ciliogenesis	HK2	[88]
Sertraline	Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor	Activator	Targets the AMPK-MTOR-RPS6KB/S6K signaling pathway	Induces ciliogenesis	RPE	[85]
Thioridazine	Member of the phenothiazine family	Activator	ND	Induces ciliogenesis	A549	[86]
Trehalose	Sugar	Activator	Promotes autophagy via TFEB	Induces ciliogenesis	HK2	[88]
Tat-Beclin 1	BECN1-derived peptide	Activator	Induces autophagosome biogenesis	Induces ciliogenesis	HK2	[88]
				Reduces cilia length	HK2	[89]
Rapamycin	Macrolide with immunosuppressant activity	Activator	MTOR inhibitor	Reduces cilia length	MEFs	[87]
ABT-737	Small molecule, chemotherapy agent	Activator	Disrupts BCL2-BECN1 binding, a negative regulatory mechanism of autophagy	Reduces cilia length	MEFs	[87]
3-Methyladenine (3-MA)	Chemotherapy agent	Inhibitor	Inhibits pre-autophagosome assembly by blocking class III PtdIns3K	Reduces cilia length	HK2	[88]
				Induces ciliogenesis	MEFs; XTC.UC1	[87,167]
Chloroquine	Used as antimalaric	Inhibitor	Impairs autolysosome formation	Reduces cilia length	HK2	[88]
Bafilomycin A1	Antibiotic of the macrolide family	Inhibitor	Impairs autolysosome formation	Reduces cilia length	HK2	[88]
				Induces ciliogenesis	HK2	[89]

Abbreviations. RPE: retinal pigment epithelial cells; MEFs: mouse embryonic fibroblasts; HK2: human kidney-2 cells; A549: human lung cancer cells; XTC.UC1: cells derived from Hürthle cell carcinoma; AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; RPS6KB/S6K: ribosomal protein S6 kinase B; TFEB: transcription factor EB; PtdIns3K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; BCL2: BCL2 apoptosis regulator; BECN1: beclin 1.