Table 3.

Prospective associations between Wave IV covariates, Wave III MODBs and Wave IV standardized cognitive outcomes in adults 24–32 years of age.

	Immediate word recall (short-term memory)		Delayed word recall (long-term memory)		Number recall (working memory)
	R ²	ΔR ²	R ²	ΔR ²	R ²	ΔR ²
Step 1^a	.079		.082		.098
Step 2	.086	.008^*	.084	.002	.106	.008^*
	β^a (95 % CI)		β^a (95 % CI)		β^a (95 % CI)
Age	−0.05 (−0.05 to −0.01)^**		−0.04 (−0.06 to −0.01)^**		−0.03 (−0.05 to 0.01)
Biological Sex	0.08 (0.07–0.32)^**		0.09 (0.10–0.35)^***		0.01 (−0.12 to 0.14)
Body Mass Index (BMI)	0.00 (−0.01 to 0.01)		−0.04 (−0.02 to 0.00)		−0.04 (−0.02 to 0.00)
Highest Education	0.16 (0.05–0.10)^***		0.15 (0.05–0.09)^***		0.15 (0.05–0.09)^**
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test	0.15 (0.01–0.01)^***		0.17 (0.01–0.02)^***		0.21 (0.01–0.02)^**
Eat Different Foods	−0.05 (−0.20 to −0.01)^*		−0.03 (−0.16 to 0.04)		−0.00 (−0.12 to 0.14)
Exercise	0.03 (−0.03 to 0.17)		0.01 (−0.09 to 0.11)		0.06 (0.03–0.23)^*
Lift Weights	−0.06 (−0.22 to −0.01)^*		−0.03 (−0.16 to 0.01)		−0.06 (−0.23 to −0.02)^*
Take Food Supplements	−0.02 (−0.16 to 0.07)		0.01 (−0.09 to 0.14)		−0.03 (−0.18 to 0.05)
Eat More	−0.03 (−0.15 to 0.04)		−0.02 (−0.13 to 0.01)		0.02 (−0.05 to 0.14)
Legal PES-Use	0.06 (0.03–0.527)^*		0.01 (−0.01 to 0.14)		0.06 (0.03–0.27)^*
Illegal PES-Use	−0.02 (−0.34 to 0.17)		−0.02 (−0.38 to 0.13)		0.00 (−0.25 to 0.27)

Note. Data is from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) Waves III & IV. MODBS = Muscularity-oriented disordered behaviors. PES = performance enhancing substances. Covariates included age, biological sex, BMI, education, and Wave I cognition.

p < .05

^**

p < .01

^***

p < .001

Only covariates were entered in Step 1. For parsimony, specific beta coefficients of covariates are only presented for Step 2.