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. 2022 Oct 18;28(1):217–229. doi: 10.1038/s41380-022-01792-4

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — a shows structure of GLP-1 analogues exenatide, lixisenatide, liraglutide, albiglutide, semaglutide and dulaglutide. b displays downstream signaling pathways from GLP-1 activation. Abbreviations: Fc fragment crystallizable, GLP-1 glucagon-like peptide-1, IgG immunoglobulin G, AC adenylyl cyclase, ADP adenosine diphosphate, Akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homologue, B-Raf B-regulation of alpha-fetoprotein, cAMP cyclic adenosine monophosphate, ERK extracellular signal-regulated kinase, GEFs guanine-nucleotide-exchange factors, GLP-1 glucagon-like peptide-1, GLP-1R glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor, LTP long-term potentiation, MAPK mitogen-activated protein kinases, MEK MAPK kinase, PDK phosphatidylinosite dependent kinase, PI3K phosphatidylinositol- 4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase, PKA protein kinase A, PKB protein kinase B, PKC protein kinase C, Rap1A Ras-related protein Rap-1A.