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. 2022 Oct 18;28(1):217–229. doi: 10.1038/s41380-022-01792-4

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — a shows downstream signaling pathways depicting the influence GLP-1 on Parkinson’s disease pathogenesis. b Insulin signaling in neurons. b demonstrates the action of insulin in the neuron and activation of downstream pathway. Abbreviations: Bcl-2 B cell lymphoma 2, BAD (Bcl-2) antagonist of death, Bcl-XL B cell lymphoma 2 extra-large, cAMP cyclic AMP, CREB cAMP response element-binding protein, FoxO1/O3 Forkhead box O1/O3, GLP-1 glucagon-like peptide-1, GSK-3B glycogen synthase 3 beta, LTP long-term potentiation, MAPK mitogen-associated protein kinase, mTOR mammalian target of rapamycin, NF-kB nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, PI3K phophoinositide 3-kinase, TNF tumor necrosis factor, Akt/PKB protein kinase B complex, CPD3B cyclic phosphodiesterase 3 beta, Grb2/SOS Growth factor receptor binding protein 2/son of sevenless protein, IRS insulin receptor substrates that get phosphorylated after activation, NRF1 nuclear respiratory factor-1, PGC-1α peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1-α, PDK phosphatidylinosite dependent kinase, PPAR peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor family, Raf regulation of alpha-fetoprotein, Ras rat sarcoma virus peptide, Shc Src homology collagen peptide.