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. 2022 Jul 15;28(1):242–255. doi: 10.1038/s41380-022-01680-x

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — A Aging is a collection of processes with well-characterized and observable phenotypic outcomes (age-sensitive phenotypes; ASPs) but often poorly understood underlying causes. It is likely that a large number of underlying processes drive age-dependent phenotypic changes, each contributing to some of the observed phenotypes. ASPs can be measured directly and can be used as markers to address whether a given intervention (e.g., genetic, dietary or pharmacological) targets the processes underlying their age-dependent change (even if the processes themselves remain poorly defined). B ASPs can be measured in many organisms and across levels of biological complexity (for example, see main text).