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. 2022 Dec 22;13:955476. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.955476

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Copyright © 2022 Pal, Sharma, Mathew and Jaganathan

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Alterations in amino acid metabolism during cancer progression. Amino acids are used by cancer cells as a source of carbon and nitrogen. The expression of ASCT2 increases glutamine uptake, and it is converted to glutamate via glutaminase and provides a TCA-cycle intermediate for energy production. Intake of BCAAs is also upregulated by the expression of LAT1. The folate methionine cycle is fuelled by serine, which helps maintain redox balance in the microenvironment. These alterations aid the growth and proliferation of cancer cells via upregulation of the mTOR signaling pathway (98). [LAT1, Large amino acid transporter 1; ASCT2, Alanine serine cysteine transporter 2; BCAA, Branch chain amino acids; BCAT1, Branch chain aminotransferase 1; ASNS, Asparagine synthetase; ETC, Electron transport chain; GSH, Glutathione; Met, Methionine; 3PG, Glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate].