| Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) + graphene oxide (GO) |
GO conc. (0.05, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1 wt%) |
Self-prepared printer |
Collagen II synthesis increased up to 66% |
Human bone marrow scaffolds, cartilage, regenerative medicine |
63
|
| Irgacure 2959 (Photoinitiator PI) 0.5 wt% |
Laser diameter 200 μm |
GAG secretion increased up to 71% |
|
Energy output 25 μJ |
Total collagen level increased up to 43% |
|
Printing speed 10 mm s−1
|
|
| Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) + multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) |
MWCNTs conc. (0.02, 0.05, 1 wt%) |
Printrbot® printer |
Maximum Young's modulus achieved was 1 MPa |
Neural regeneration |
88
|
|
Z-Axis resolution 110 μm |
Maximum porosity achieved 66% |
| Light wavelength 355 nm |
Pulse stimulation 500 μA |
| Energy output 20 μJ |
|
| Laser diameter 190 ± 50 μm |
|
| Laser frequency 8–30 kHz |
|
| Printing speed 15 mm s−1
|
|
| 1,6-Hexanediol diacrylate (HDDA) + hydroxyapatite (HA) |
HA conc. (40, 45, 50 vol%) |
AutoCera printer |
Maximum flexural strength achieved 36.5 MPa |
Bone tissue engineering |
92
|
| Diphenyl(2,4,6-trimethyl benzoyl) phosphine oxide (TPO) (PI) 1 wt% |
Light wavelength 405 nm |
Maximum compression strength achieved 161.9 MPa |
| Light intensity 8000 μW cm−2
|
Maximum porosity achieved 54% |
| Exposure time 8 s |
Optimal sintering temp 1250 °C |
| Layer thickness 25 μm |
|
| Sintering temp 1200–1300 °C |
|
| Acrylate resin + zirconia/hydroxyapatite (ZrO2/HA) |
ZrO2/HA conc. (0, 10, 20, 30 wt%) |
Layer thickness 0.02 mm |
Maximum compression strength achieved was 52 MPa (HA) |
Cancellous bone repair |
46
|
| Sintering temp 1400 °C |
Maximum compressive modulus achieved was 4.7 GPa (HA) |
|
Maximum compression strength achieved was 39.99 MPa (ZrO2) |
| WaterShed XC 11122 acrylate + hydroxyapatite (HA) |
HA conc. (10, 20, 30, 40, 45 wt%) |
LAYING II 1510P printer |
Minimum shrinkage in XY and Z axis was 36.5% and 13.8%, respectively |
Bone scaffolds |
89
|
| Layer thickness 0.02 mm |
Volume shrinkage of 65.2% |
| Print speed 20 mm s−1
|
Maximum compressive strength achieved was 12.8 MPa |
| Sintering temp 1200 °C |
Proliferation of cells with 500% viability for 48 h |
| Polylactic acid–polyurethane (PLA–PUA) + graphene |
Graphene conc. (0.5 wt%) |
Photon, ANYCUBIC printer |
Maximum tensile strength achieved was 68 MPa (62% than casting) |
Gyroid scaffold for bone tissue engineering |
39
|
| TEGDMA 37% |
Light wavelength 405 nm |
Maximum flexural strength achieved was 115 MPa |
| PLA-PUA 62 wt% |
Light intensity 20 W |
Maximum flexural modulus achieved was 5.8 GPa |
| Irgacure 819 (PI) 1 wt% |
XY resolution 47 μm |
|
|
Z resolution 1.25 μm |
|
| Urethane dimethacrylate (UDMA) + silver-carrying halloysite nanotubes (Ag-HNT) |
Ag-HNT conc. (1, 2, 3 wt%) |
Light wavelength 405 nm |
Maximum flexural strength achieved was 105 MPa (increase in strength up to 25%) |
Dentistry |
45
|
| UDMA 60 wt% |
Shear strain 0.1 wt% |
Maximum flexural modulus achieved was 2.3 GPa |
| Triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) 40 wt% |
Frequency 10 Hz |
Relative cell viability of up to 75% |
| (TPO) 1 wt% |
Irradiation power 1 mW cm−2
|
|
|
Layer thickness 0.25 mm |
|
|
Exposure time 12 s |
|
|
Z axis resolution 50 μm |
|
| Methacrylate resin + zirconia (ZrO2) |
ZrO2 conc. 78% |
No data given |
Maximum shrinkage in Z-axis was 28% |
Dental implants |
93
|
| Dispersant 2 wt% |
Optimal sintering temp of 1450 °C |
| PI 5 wt% |
Vickers hardness at surface was 1542 |
|
Vickers hardness at sides was 1268 |
|
Maximum bending strength achieved was 1268 MPa |
| 1,6-Hexanediol diacrylate (HDDA) + hydroxyapatite (HA) |
HA conc |
Light wavelength 405 nm |
Maximum compressive strength achieved was 22.5 MPa (CPS scaffolds) |
Bone regeneration |
94
|
| TPO |
Layer thickness 30 μm |
Maximum compressive modulus was 4 GPa (CPS scaffolds) |
|
Energy 10 mJ cm−2
|
Maximum porosity achieved was 70% |
|
Exposure time 1.5 s |
|
| Formlabs clear methacrylate resin + boron nitride (BN) |
BN conc. (0, 0.5, 1 wt%) |
Form 1+ printer |
Maximum micro hardness was 135 MPa |
Bone scaffolds |
95
|
| Light wavelength 405 nm |
Maximum compressive strength achieved was 40.2 MPa |
|
Maximum compressive modulus was 438 MPa |
|
Loss tangent value was 0.14–24 |
|
Damping constant was 15.4 s−1
|
| Methacrylic anhydride resin + chitosan (CH) |
CH conc. (0.5, 1, 2, 4 wt%) |
FLASHFORGE printer |
Maximum tensile strength achieved was 82 kPa (increase in strength up to 20%) |
Tissue engineering, nose architectures |
96
|
| Irgacure 2959 (PI) |
Light wavelength 405 nm |
Compressive modulus was 910 kPa |
|
Irradiation power 15 mW cm−2
|
Relative cell viability of up to 95% |
|
Exposure time 15 s |
|
| Methacrylate resin + hydroxyapatite (HA) |
HA conc. (20 and 40 wt%) |
No data given |
Proliferation rate of 400% |
Bone repair, tissue engineering |
97
|
| TPO-L (PI) |
Swelling was 9% after 28 days |
| Photopolymer resin + iron oxide (IO) |
IO conc. (1, 3, 5 wt%) |
No data given |
Relative cell viability of up to 95% |
Bone regeneration |
98
|
| Magnetization range was 22.42–66.76 emu g−1
|
| Maximum compression strength achieved was 70 N m−2
|
| Young's modulus was 275 N m−1
|
| Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) + hydroxyapatite (HA) |
HA conc. (0, 5, 10, 15 vol%) |
Anycubic photon printer |
Tensile strength was 30 MPa (increase in strength y up to 58%) |
Repair and reconstruction of load bearing bone defects |
99
|
| Light wavelength 405 nm |
Young's modulus 1.9 GPa (increase in modulus by up to 144%) |
| Layer thickness 50 μm |
Yield strength of 7% |
| Exposure time 50 s |
Maximum toughness achieved was 1.87 MPa |
| 1,6-Hexanediol diacrylate (HDDA) + ZrO2–AlO2
|
ZrO2 80 wt% |
CeraBuilder 100 printer |
Maximum linear shrinkage was up to 23% |
Dental restorations |
100
|
| AlO2 20 wt% |
Light wavelength 355 nm |
Maximum density achieved was 5.9 g cm−3
|
| TPO 1 wt% |
Layer thickness 0.04 mm |
Vickers hardness was 16 GPa |
| Dispersant 2–5 wt% |
Scanning speed 2000 mm s−1
|
Fracture toughness was 6.8 MPa m−1/2
|
|
|
Optimum sintering temperature was 1600 °C |
| LithaBone HA 480 E acrylate resin + hydroxyapatite (HA) |
— |
CeraFab 7500 printer |
Intrinsic permeability was 0.75–1.74 × 10−9 m2
|
Bone replacement and bone tissue engineering |
101
|
| Light wavelength 460 nm |
Compressive strength was 1.60 MPa |
|
X–Y resolution 40 μm |
Elastic modulus was 513 MPa |
| Layer thickness 25 μm |
Maximum porosity obtained was 80% |
| Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) + hydroxyapatite (HA) |
HA conc. (40–42 wt%) |
XY resolution 200 μm |
Max compressive strength achieved was 61 MPa (increase in strength by up to 1700%) |
Bone regeneration |
102
|
| PI conc. (0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 wt%) |
Layer thickness 30 μm |
Elastic modulus was up to 2.3 GPa |
|
Laser power 70 mW |
Maximum cell viability was 115% |
|
Scanning speed 3.9 m s−1
|
|
| 1,6-Hexanediol diacrylate (HDDA) + biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) |
BCP conc. (50.60, 65, 70, 75 wt%) |
No data given |
Shrinkage at 1300 °C was 22% |
Bone tissue engineering |
103
|
| TPO conc. (0.5–2 wt%) |
Maximum porosity achieved was 68% |
|
Maximum compressive strength achieved was 20 MPa |
|
Vickers hardness was 6 GPa |
|
Optimal sintering temperature 1300 °C |
| Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) + hydroxyapatite (HA) |
HA conc. 40 vol% |
Home-built printer |
Viscosity achieved 200 mPa s |
Personalized bone implants |
64
|
| Light wavelength 380–420 nm |
Optimal sintering temperature 1300 °C |
| Irradiation power 0.5 mW cm−2
|
Tensile strength was 5 MPa |
| Energy per layer 5–10 mJ cm−2
|
|
