Table 2.

Studies describing galectin-3-mediated effects of non-digestible carbohydrates in colorectal cancer.

PectinSource and Modification	In Vivo Model	In Vitro Model	Galectin-3 Blocking	Main Results	Reference
Citrus (pH and temperature-modified pectin) 1% in drinking water	NCR nu/nu mice injected with LSLiM6 cells	-	↓ binding to HUVEC ↓ HUVEC chemotaxis/ capillary tube formation	Therapeutic effect: ↓ tumor growth ↓tumor- associated blood vessels ↓ NM and LM	[114]
Citrus (modified pectin) 1–5% in drinking water	Balb/c mice spleen injected with CT26 cells	-	= expression in blood and LM	Therapeutic effect: ↓ tumor growth ↓ LM	[115]
Citrus(LMW pectin PYKTIN, Centrax Int.) 1–5% in drinking water	Nude mice engrafted with SW-480 cells	-	↓ expression	Therapeutic effect: ↓ tumor growth ↑ 5-FU effect ↑ apoptosis in tumor tissue	[116]
Citrus(modified pectin with alginate and L. acidophilus)	AOM-treated Balb/c mice	-	↓ expression in colonic crypts and blood vessels	Chemopreventive effect: ↓ precancerous lesions	[117]
Apple(modified pectin from red Fuji apples) 2.5–10% in pellet diet	DMH/DSS- treated ICS mice	-	↓ expression in serum ↓ galactose binding to SW-1116	Chemopreventive effect: ↓ colon inflammation ↓ tumorigenesis ↑ colonic EC apoptosis ↑ caspase-3 activation	[118]
Smilax china L. (pectin)	DSS-treated Balb/c mice	-	↓ Gal- 3/NLRP3 inflammasome interaction	Therapeutic/preventive effects: ↓ UC histo- pathological damage ↓ inflammatory mediators	[3]
Citrus(modified pectin, EcoNugenics) 0.1–25 mM	-	DLD-1	↓ extracellular expression	↓ cell migration	[81]
Citrus (LMW pectin PYKTIN, Centrax Int.) 0.625–10 mg/mL	-	SW-480	↓ expression	↓ cell proliferation ↑ cell cycle arrest ↓ EMT	[116]
Ginseng (HG-rich pectin) Ginseng(temperature-modified pectin)	-	HT-29 HT-29	ND	↓ cell proliferation ↑ cell cycle arrest ↓↓ cell proliferation ↑ apoptosis ↑ caspase-3 activation	[119]
			ND
Ginseng (RG-I-4 pectic fragment)	-	HT-29	↓ rGal3- induced RBC agglutination ↓ binding to Jurkat cells	↓ cell adhesion ↓ ASF-induced cell aggregation	[120]
Apple(enzyme- modified, enriched in RG-I regions)	-	HCT 116 Caco-2 HT-29	↓ expression	↑ irinotecan effect ↓ cell viability ↑ apoptosis ↑ ROS ↓ LPS-induced inflammatory mediators	[121]
Sugar beet(enzyme- or alkali- modified pectin) 0.2–1 mg/mL	-	HT-29 DLD-1	Galactose/ arabinose- mediated	↓ cell proliferation ↑ apoptosis	[122]
Olive (heat- and acid-modified pectin) 1–10 mg/mL	-	Caco-2	↓ rGal3-induced RBC agglutination	↓ cell proliferation	[123]
Jaboticaba (pectin from fruit flour) 0.25–2 mg/mL	-	HCT116	↓ rGal3- induced RBC agglutination	↓ cell viability	[124]
Papaya (pectin from fruit pulp) 0.025–0.2%	-	HCT116 HT-29	↓ rGal3- induced RBC agglutination Gal-3 gene knockdown	↓ cell viability ↓ cell proliferation	[108,125]

Abbreviations: AOM, azoxymethane; ASF, asialofetuin; DMH, 1,2-dimethylhydrazine; DSS, dextran sodium sulfate; NDC, non-digestible carbohydrates; EC, epithelial cells; EMT, epithelial–mesenchymal transition; 5-FU, 5-fluorouracil; HG, homogalacturonan; LMW, low molecular weight; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; LM, liver metastases; NM, node metastases; RBC, red blood cells; rGal3, recombinant galectin 3; ROS, reactive oxygen species; UC, ulcerative colitis.