Table 1.
Characteristics of included studies. * Not included in the meta-analysis for prevalence.
| Study | Country | Study Design | Characteristics of Population | Myopia | Type of | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n | Age, Years | Sex,% men | Children/ Adolescent |
Adults | Occupation | Prevalence | Progression | Risks | Near-Work | |||
| Adams 1992 [26] | England | Cross-sectional | 251 | 29.7 | 35.8 | X | Microscopist | X | X | Diopter-hour | ||
| Alomair 2021 [27] | Saudi Arabia | Cross-sectional | 850 | 10.5 | 55.9 | X | X | X | unspecified | |||
| Alsaif 2019 [28] | Saudi Arabia | Cross-sectional | 338 | unknown | 48 | X | University student | X | X | unspecified | ||
| Atowa 2020 [29] | Nigeria | Cross-sectional | 1197 | 11.5 | 45 | X | X | X | Read, computer, video games, TV | |||
| Basso 2006 [30] | Italy | Cross-sectional | 209 | 39.2 | 53 | X | Administrative workers | X | X | X | VDT | |
| Berhane 2022 [31] | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | 484 | 22.81 | 63.4 | X | University student | X | X | Reading, computer | ||
| Bez 2019 [32] | Israel | Cross-sectional | 22,823 | 17.7 | 100 | X | X | X | unspecified | |||
| Chiang 2020 [33] | USA | Cross-sectional | 6571 | 15.39 | 50.98 | X | X | X | TV, computer | |||
| Czepita 2010 [19] | Poland | Cross-sectional | 5865 | 11.9 | 48 | X | X | X | Reading, computer, TV | |||
| Demir 2021 [79] | Sweden | Cross-sectional | 128 | 12 | 45.3 | X | X | unspecified | ||||
| Deng 2010 [35] | USA | Prospective | 147 | 12 | 54.4 | X | X | X | Reading, TV, computer | |||
| Donovan 2012 [36] | China | Cross-sectional | 85 | 10.3 | 51 | X | * | X | unspecified | |||
| Edwards 1999 [37] | China | Prospective | 123 | 7 | 57 | X | X | X | VDT | |||
| Enthoven 2020 [38] | Netherland | Cross-sectional | 8563 | 7 | unknown | X | X | X | computer, reading | |||
| Enthoven 2021 [39] | Netherland | Cross-sectional | 525 | 13.7 | 46 | X | X | smartphone | ||||
| Fernandez-Montero 2015 [40] | Spain | Prospective | 6963 | 38.5 | 31 | X | University student | X | X | X | Computer | |
| French 2013 [41] | Australia | Prospective | 4118 | 16 | 50 | X | X | X | Diopter-hour | |||
| Giloyan 2017 [42] | Armenia | Cross-sectional | 1092 | 12.95 | 46.6 | X | X | X | unspecified | |||
| Guo 2013 [44] | China | Cross-sectional | 681 | 12.95 | unknown | X | * | X | Reading, computer | |||
| Guo 2016 [43] | China | Cross-sectional | 3055 | 13.60 | 52 | X | X | X | computer, reading | |||
| Guo 2017 [45] | China | Prospective | 382 | 6.30 | unknown | X | X | X | X | Reading, TV, computer | ||
| Han 2019 [46] | Korea | Cross-sectional | 3398 | 36.3 | 54.5 | X | unknown | X | X | Unspecified | ||
| Hansen 2020 [47] | Denmark | Cross-sectional | 1443 | 16.6 | 45 | X | X | X | Electronic device | |||
| Hinterlong 2019 [48] | Taiwan | Cross-sectional | 3686 | 11.2 | 52 | X | X | X | unspecified | |||
| Holton 2021 [49] | Taiwan | Cross-sectional | 6200 | 11.2 | 53 | X | X | X | unspecified | |||
| Hsu 2017 [34] | Taiwan | Prospective | 3526 | 7.49 | 56 | X | * | X | X | computer, unspecified | ||
| Huang 2019 [50] | China | Cross-sectional | 968 | 19.6 | 66 | X | University student | X | X | Computer, electronic device, | ||
| Huang 2020 [51] | Taiwan | Prospective | 10,743 | 10 | 52.73 | X | X | X | X | unspecified | ||
| Hung 2020 [96] | Vietnam | Cross-sectional | 1987 | 14 | 50.3 | X | X | X | Read, computer, TV | |||
| Ip 2008 [70] | Australia | Cross-sectional | 2339 | 12.7 | unknown | X | X | X | reading | |||
| Jacobsen 2008 [52] | Denmark | Prospective | 143 | 23.1 | unknown | X | Medical student | X | X | unspecified | ||
| Jones 2007 [53] | USA | Prospective | 514 | 8 | unknown | X | X | TV, computer, reading, diopter-hour | ||||
| Jones-Jordan 2011 [14] | USA | Prospective | 1318 | 10 | 48 | X | X | TV, computer, reading | ||||
| Jones-Jordan 2012 [54] | USA | Prospective | 835 | 10.4 | 43 | X | * | X | unspecified | |||
| Khader 2006 [55] | Jordan | Cross-sectional | 1777 | 14.5 | 61 | X | X | X | reading, TV, Computer | |||
| Kim 2020 [56] | Korea | Cross-sectional | 938 | 12.2 | 51.4 | X | X | X | unspecified | |||
| Kinge 2000 [97] | Norway | Prospective | 192 | 20.6 | 48 | X | University student | * | X | X | reading | |
| Konstantopoulos 2008 [57] | Greece | Cross-sectional | 200 | 21 | 100 | Military conscript | X | Computer, reading, TV | ||||
| Ku 2019 [58] | Taiwan | Prospective | 1956 | unknown | 49.5 | X | X | X | X | Computer, reading | ||
| Lam 1999 [59] | China | Prospective | 142 | 11.38 | 47 | X | X | X | unspecified | |||
| Lanca 2022 [60] | China | Cross-sectional | 12241 | 9 | 52 | X | X | X | TV, reading, | |||
| Lee 2013 [15] | Taiwan | Cross-sectional | 5048 | 21.4 | 100 | X | Military conscript | X | TV, reading, computer | |||
| Lee 2017 [61] | China | Prospective | 23,114 | unknown | 52 | X | X | X | Reading, TV, computer | |||
| Li 2015 [62] | China | Cross-sectional | 1770 | 12.7 | 48 | X | X | Reading, computer, TV, electronic device | ||||
| Lin 2014 [63] | China | Cross-sectional | 370 | unknown | 47 | X | X | Reading, computer, TV | ||||
| Lin 2016 [64] | China | Cross-sectional | 836 | 10.5 | 52 | X | X | X | unspecified | |||
| Lin 2016 [95] | China | Prospective | 222 | 10.9 | 48.2 | X | X | X | X | Indoor activities | ||
| Lin 2017 [65] | China | Cross-sectional | 572 | 10.6 | 49 | X | X | X | Reading, TV | |||
| Liu 2021 [66] | China | Cross-sectional | 3831 | unknown | 51.5 | X | X | X | Digital screen time | |||
| Loman 2002 [67] | USA | Cross-sectional | 177 | 27 | 58 | X | University student | X | X | Non specified | ||
| Lu 2009 [68] | China | Cross-sectional | 998 | 14.6 | 44 | X | X | X | Reading, TV | |||
| Ma et al. 2018 [69] | China | Prospective | 1639 | 8.1 | 51.5 | X | X | X | X | reading | ||
| Mavrakanas 2000 [71] | Greece | Cross-sectional | 1738 | unknown | unknown | X | X | Reading | ||||
| McBrien 1997 [72] | England | Prospective | 251 | 29.7 | 36 | X | microscopist | X | X | Microscopy use | ||
| McCrann 2021 [73] | Ireland | Cross-sectional | 402 | 16.7 | 45 | X | X | X | Electric device | |||
| Muhamedagic 2014 [74] | Bosnia | Prospective | 100 | 21.89 | 39 | X | University student | * | X | Tv, computer, reading, diopter-hours | ||
| Mutti 2002 [75] | USA | Cross-sectional | 366 | 13.7 | 55 | X | X | X | Reading, TV, computer | |||
| Onal 2007 [76] | Turkey | Prospective | 207 | 20.3 | 55 | X | Medical student | X | X | unspecified | ||
| Pärssinen 2014 [13] | Finland | Prospective | 240 | 10.9 | 50 | X | X | X | X | Reading, TV | ||
| Pärssinen 2022 [77] | Finland | Cross-sectional | 13,649 | 11 | 14.5 | X | X | X | Reading | |||
| Patel 2019 [78] | India | Cross-sectional | 248 | 17.8 | 55 | X | X | Medical student | X | Tv, computer, electronic device, reading | ||
| Qi 2019 [80] | China | Prospective | 522 | 15.5 | 100 | X | X | X | Reading | |||
| Rose 2008 [81] | Australia | Cross-sectional | 1735 | 9.7 | 51 | X | X | TV, computer, Indoor activity | ||||
| Saw 1999 [82] | Singapore | Prospective | 405 | 9.5 | unknown | X | * | Indoor activity | ||||
| Saw 2001 [83] | China | Cross-sectional | 429 | 21 | 100 | X | military conscript | X | X | Indoor activity | ||
| Saw 2002 [84] | Singapore | Cross-sectional | 1962 | 8 | 50 | X | X | X | Indoor activity, reading | |||
| Speeg-Schatz 2001 [85] | France | Prospective | 814 | unknown | 24 | X | administrative worker | X | Diopter-hours | |||
| Sun 2018 [86] | China | Cross-sectional | 4890 | 12.5 | 51.7 | X | X | X | unspecified | |||
| Tsai 2016 [98] | Taiwan | Cross-sectional | 11,590 | unknown | 53 | X | X | X | Read, TV | |||
| Wong 1993 [2] | China | Cross-sectional | 408 | 27 | 55 | X | fisherman | X | TV, reading | |||
| Woodman 2011 [87] | Australia | Prospective | 40 | 23.4 | unknown | X | University student | X | X | unspecified | ||
| Wu 2010 [89] | Taiwan | Cross-sectional | 145 | 9 | 52 | X | X | X | indoor activities, computer, reading | |||
| Wu 2015 [88] | China | Cross-sectional | 4677 | 16.9 | 47 | X | X | University student | X | X | Reading | |
| Yang 2018 [90] | Canada | Cross-sectional | 166 | 9.6 | 50 | X | X | unspecified | ||||
| Yao 2019 [91] | China | Prospective | 800 | 15 | 100 | X | * | X | X | reading | ||
| Yotsokura 2020 [92] | Brazil | Cross-sectional | 421 | 10.6 | unknown | X | X | unspecified | ||||
| You 2016 [93] | China | Prospective | 4129 | 8.11 | 54 | X | * | X | X | Reading, TV, indoor activities | ||
| Zadnik 2015 [94] | USA | Cross-sectional | 4512 | 9.2 | 50 | X | X | unspecified | ||||