Table 1.

Studies on wine consumption and risk of cardiovascular diseases.

Wine/Alcohol Consumption and CVD Risk	Number of Subjects	Study Design	References
Alcohol consumption is inversely related to coronary heart disease incidence (p for trend < 0.001).	51,529 male healthy professionals	Prospective study	Rimm et al., 1991 [92]
Strong negative association between moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction and death from coronary heart disease.	7705 Japanese men living in Hawaii	Cohort study	Yano et al., 1977 [93]
Risk of coronary heart disease decreased from 0 to 20 g/day of alcohol (RR = 0.80; 95% CI: 0.78, 0.83); evidence of a protective effect up to 72 g/day (RR = 0.96; 95% CI: 0.92, 1.00) and increased risk above 89 g/day (RR = 1.05; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.11). Lower protective effects in women and in men living in countries outside the Mediterranean area.	28 cohort studies	Meta-analysis	Corrao et al., 2000 [94]
Compared with non-drinkers, light drinkers who avoid wine have a relative risk for death from coronary heart disease of 0.76 (CI, 0.63 to 0.92) and those who drank wine have a risk of 0.58 (CI, 0.47 to 0.72).	13,064 men and 11,459 women 20 to 98 years of age	Pooled cohort studies	Grønbaek et al., 1995 [95]
IHD-associated mortality: 62 men. In men, RR for IHD in drinkers vs nondrinkers was 0.51 (95% CI, 0.27–0.95). Report a cardioprotective effect from IHD in a predominantly beer drinking population (starts with 0.1–0.99 g/d alcohol intake), and effect did not decrease with higher consumption.	2084 subjects (1071 men; 1013 women)	Population-based prospective study	Keil et al., 1997 [97]
Wine drinkers had lower mortality from IHD than non-wine drinkers (p = 0.007). At all levels of intake of alcohol, wine drinkers were at a significantly lower risk for all-cause mortality than nonwine drinkers (p < 0.001).	24,525 (13,064 men; 11,459 women)	Population-based prospective cohort	Grønbaek et al., 2000 [98]
For middle-aged women, moderate alcohol consumption decreased the risk of IHD. (Women who consumed 5–14 g alcohol/d had a RR of 0.6; 15–24 g/d RR 0.6; ≥25 g/d RR 0.4.)	87,526 women	Population-based prospective cohort	Stampfer et al., 1988 [96]
Moderate intake of wine was associated with a significant reduction in cardiovascular events including cardiovascular death, non-fatal MI and nonfatal strokes: HR, 0.87 (95% CI, 0.76–0.99). Risk of cardiovascular events was significantly reduced by 13% with wine consumption up to 0.5 L/d (defined as moderate consumption).	11,248 patients with recent myocardial infarction (MI) (9601 men; 1647 women)	Multicenter open-label prospective study	Levantesi et al., 2013 [99]