Table1.
Background characteristics of the study population according to eating time window duration (time feeding restricted to 10 h vs. no restriction).
| Variables | TRF* (n = 409) | No restriction (n = 944) | Cohen’s d /φ | P |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age group (years) | 0.21 | 0.017 | ||
| 60–64 | 12 (2.9) | 35 (3.7) | ||
| 65–74 | 228 (55.7) | 595 (63.0) | ||
| ≥ 75 | 169 (41.3) | 314 (33.3) | ||
| Sex (%) | 0.03 | 0.270 | ||
| Male | 161 (39.4) | 402 (42.6) | ||
| Female (%) | 248 (60.6) | 542 (57.4) | ||
| BMI (kg/m2) | 23.92 ± 3.46 | 23.61 ± 3.33 | 0.09 | 0.313 |
| IADL (score) | 6.57 ± 1.14 | 7.68 ± 1.00 | − 1.04 | 0.021 |
| MNA-SF (score) | 12.89 ± 1.35 | 12.82 ± 1.45 | 0.05 | 0.163 |
| GDS (score) | 13.06 ± 3.34 | 12.70 ± 3.24 | 0.11 | 0.334 |
| Sleep duration (hour) | 8.48 ± 1.34 | 8.35 ± 1.33 | 0.10 | 0.471 |
| IPAQ (Met/week) | 4746 (2039.25,8484) | 4893 (2373,9786) | − 0.12 | 0.107 |
| Living alone (%) | 77 (18.8) | 161 (17.1) | 0.02 | 0.432 |
| Widowed (%) | 93 (22.7) | 184 (19.5) | 0.04 | 0.174 |
| Illiterate (%) | 62 (15.2) | 109 (11.5) | 0.07 | 0.066 |
| Farming (%) | 214 (52.3) | 554 (58.7) | 0.16 | 0.030 |
| Smoking (%) | 0.06 | 0.129 | ||
| Non-smoker | 301 (73.6) | 644 (68.2) | ||
| Former smoker | 56 (13.7) | 163 (17.3) | ||
| Current smoker | 52 (12.7) | 137 (14.5) | ||
| Drinking (%) | 0.06 | 0.204 | ||
| Never drinker | 262 (64.1) | 588 (62.3) | ||
| Former drinker | 51 (12.5) | 92 (9.7) | ||
| Occasional drinker | 38 (9.3) | 113 (12.0) | ||
| Current drinker | 58 (14.2) | 151 (16.0) | ||
| Health status (%) | ||||
| Type-2 diabetes | 67 (16.4) | 167 (17.7) | 0.02 | 0.559 |
| Hypertension | 279 (68.2) | 576 (61.0) | 0.17 | 0.012 |
| Hyperlipidemia | 58 (14.2) | 120 (12.7) | 0.02 | 0.463 |
| Stroke | 138 (33.7) | 264 (28.0) | 0.21 | 0.033 |
| Heart disease | 145 (35.5) | 329 (34.9) | 0.01 | 0.832 |
| Cancer | 12 (3.0) | 34 (3.6) | 0.02 | 0.569 |
| The time of food intake (%) | 1.13 | < 0.001 | ||
| Daytime feeding | 388 (94.9) | 808 (85.6) | ||
| Night-time feeding | 21 (5.1) | 136 (14.4) | ||
| CI (%) | 144 (35.2) | 137 (14.5) | 0.33 | < 0.001 |
| MMSE (score) | 22.45 ± 4.63 | 24.97 ± 4.24 | − 0.57 | < 0.001 |
| Orientation to time (score) | 4.21 ± 1.15 | 4.30 ± 1.00 | − 0.08 | 0.540 |
| Orientation to place (score) | 3.65 ± 0.83 | 4.73 ± 0.71 | − 1.40 | < 0.001 |
| Registration (score) | 2.75 ± 0.52 | 2.85 ± 0.51 | − 0.19 | 0.658 |
| Attention/calculation (score) | 2.36 ± 1.64 | 3.64 ± 1.60 | − 0.79 | < 0.001 |
| Recall (score) | 1.35 ± 1.27 | 1.34 ± 1.23 | 0.01 | 0.918 |
| Language (score) | 8.04 ± 1.27 | 8.10 ± 1.18 | − 0.05 | 0.603 |
TRF Time restricted feeding, BMI Body Mass Index, IADL Instrumental activities of daily living, MNA-SF Mini-nutritional assessment short-form, GDS Geriatric Depression Scale, IPAQ International physical activity questionnaires, CI Cognitive impairment, MMSE Mini-mental State Examination.
*TRF is the control group. △Cohen’s d indicates effects sizes in Student’s t-test and Mann–Whitney U-test, φ indicates effects sizes in Chi-squared test.