Table 1.
Baseline characteristics of study subjects (before and after PSM matching).
| Before matching |
After matching |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| COVID-19 cohort (n = 888,463) | Non COVID-19 cohort (n = 2,926,016) | Std diff. | p value | COVID-19 cohort (n = 887,455) | Non COVID-19 cohort (n = 887,455) | Std diff. | p value | |
| Age at index | ||||||||
| Mean ± SD | 45.2 ± 17.6 | 46.7 ± 18.5 | 0.083 | <0.001 | 45.2 ± 17.6 | 45.1 ± 17.6 | 0.005 | 0.001 |
| Sex | ||||||||
| Female | 510,200 (57.4) | 1,633,065 (55.8) | 0.033 | <0.001 | 509,494 (57.4) | 508,254 (57.3) | 0.003 | 0.060 |
| Male | 377,971 (42.5) | 1,291,191 (44.1) | 0.032 | <0.001 | 377,669 (42.6) | 378,916 (42.7) | 0.003 | 0.058 |
| Missing | 292 (00.0) | 1760 (00.1) | 0.013 | <0.001 | 292 (00.0) | 285 (00.0) | <0.001 | 0.771 |
| Race | ||||||||
| White | 572,496 (64.4) | 1,916,777 (65.5) | 0.022 | <0.001 | 571,870 (64.4) | 570,595 (64.3) | 0.003 | 0.046 |
| Black or African American | 182,253 (20.5) | 553,192 (18.9) | 0.040 | <0.001 | 181,942 (20.5) | 183,503 (20.7) | 0.004 | 0.004 |
| Asian | 16,737 (01.9) | 62,705 (02.1) | 0.018 | <0.001 | 16,763 (01.9) | 16,764 (01.9) | <0.001 | 0.877 |
| American Indian | 3082 (00.3) | 9995 (00.3) | 0.001 | 0.454 | 3081 (00.3) | 3008 (00.3) | 0.001 | 0.349 |
| Native Hawaiian | 1553 (00.2) | 4339 (00.1) | 0.007 | <0.001 | 1549 (00.2) | 1579 (00.2) | 0.001 | 0.591 |
| Missing or unknown | 112,342 (12.6) | 379,008 (13.0) | 0.009 | <0.001 | 112,250 (12.7) | 112,006 (12.6) | 0.001 | 0.540 |
| Social economic status | ||||||||
| Housing/economic circumstances problem | 5242 (00.6) | 14,409 (00.5) | 0.013 | <0.001 | 5187 (00.6) | 4168 (00.5) | 0.016 | <0.001 |
| Employment and unemployment problems | 2124 (00.2) | 5097 (00.2) | 0.014 | <0.001 | 2066 (00.2) | 1663 (00.2) | 0.010 | <0.001 |
| Problems related to education and literacy | 307 (00.0) | 700 (00.0) | 0.006 | <0.001 | 305 (00.0) | 211 (00.0) | 0.006 | <0.001 |
| Occupational exposure to risk factors | 382 (00.0) | 729 (00.0) | 0.010 | <0.001 | 375 (00.0) | 268 (00.0) | 0.006 | <0.001 |
| Lifestyle | ||||||||
| Tobacco use (smoking) | 18,356 (02.1) | 46,984 (01.6) | 0.034 | <0.001 | 18,084 (02.0) | 16,441 (01.9) | 0.013 | <0.001 |
| Nicotine dependence (smoking) | 48,280 (05.4) | 171,048 (05.8) | 0.018 | <0.001 | 48,143 (05.4) | 46,543 (05.2) | 0.008 | <0.001 |
| Alcohol liver disease (alcohol drinking) | 2662 (00.3) | 10,471 (00.4) | 0.010 | <0.001 | 2654 (00.3) | 2019 (00.2) | 0.014 | <0.001 |
| Comorbidities (Yes) | ||||||||
| Type 2 diabetes mellitus | 83,751 (09.4) | 188,593 (06.4) | 0.110 | <0.001 | 82,856 (09.3) | 82,661 (09.3) | 0.001 | 0.615 |
| Vitamin D deficiency | 40,384 (04.5) | 71,514 (02.4) | 0.115 | <0.001 | 39,506 (04.5) | 40,363 (04.5) | 0.005 | 0.002 |
| Hyperlipidemia | 82,991 (09.3) | 200,600 (06.9) | 0.091 | <0.001 | 82,179 (09.3) | 81,712 (09.2) | 0.002 | 0.226 |
| Asthma | 47,052 (05.3) | 106,079 (03.6) | 0.081 | <0.001 | 46,545 (05.2) | 45,822 (05.2) | 0.004 | 0.015 |
| Depression | 59,941 (06.7) | 140,009 (04.8) | 0.084 | <0.001 | 59,261 (06.7) | 56,987 (06.4) | 0.010 | <0.001 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 38,775 (04.4) | 77,650 (02.7) | 0.093 | <0.001 | 38,002 (04.3) | 35,837 (04.0) | 0.012 | <0.001 |
| Sleep disorder | 64,454 (07.3) | 143,362 (04.9) | 0.099 | <0.001 | 63,623 (07.2) | 62,816 (07.1) | 0.004 | 0.019 |
| Psychoactive substance use | 67,878 (07.6) | 248,822 (08.5) | 0.032 | <0.001 | 67,694 (07.6) | 63,609 (07.2) | 0.018 | <0.001 |
| Laboratory | ||||||||
| BMI | ||||||||
| n (%) | 241,939 (27.2) | 749,036 (25.6) | 241,219 (27.2) | 245,367 (27.6) | ||||
| mean ± SD, kg/m2 | 30.5 ± 7.1 | 29.5 ± 6.8 | 0.144 | <0.001 | 30.5 ± 7.1 | 30.3 ± 7.0 | 0.028 | <0.001 |
| ≥30 kg/m2, n (%) | 126,078 (14.2) | 334,120 (11.4) | 0.083 | <0.001 | 125,459 (14.1) | 124,525 (14.0) | 0.003 | 0.044 |
| Missing | 646,524 (72.8) | 2,176,980 (74.4) | 646,236 (72.8) | 642,088 (72.4) | ||||
| CRP | ||||||||
| n (%) | 53,292 (06.0) | 79,610 (02.7) | 53,031 (06.0) | 25,957 (02.9) | ||||
| mean ± SD, mg/L | 36.2 ± 59.7 | 29.6 ± 58.6 | 0.111 | <0.001 | 36.2 ± 59.7 | 28.9 ± 57.8 | 0.125 | <0.001 |
| ≥40 mg/L, n (%) | 18,699 (02.1) | 17,165 (00.6) | 0.132 | <0.001 | 18,594 (02.1) | 5450 (00.6) | 0.128 | <0.001 |
| Missing | 835,171 (94.0) | 2,846,406 (97.3) | 834,424 (94.0) | 861,498 (97.1) | ||||
| Creatinine | ||||||||
| n (%) | 379,705 (42.7) | 1,126,839 (38.5) | 378,775 (42.7) | 355,248 (40.0) | ||||
| mean ± SD, mg/dl | 1.1 ± 1.9 | 1.0 ± 1.9 | 0.014 | <0.001 | 1.1 ± 1.9 | 1.1 ± 1.9 | 0.002 | 0.351 |
| ≥1.5 mg/dL, n (%) | 47,258 (05.3) | 112,483 (03.8) | 0.071 | <0.001 | 46,775 (05.3) | 38,611 (04.4) | 0.043 | <0.001 |
| Missing | 508,758 (57.3) | 1,799,177 (61.5) | 508,680 (57.3) | 532,207 (60.0) | ||||
| Hemoglobin | ||||||||
| n (%) | 364,755 (41.1) | 1,127,923 (38.5) | 363,828 (41.0) | 355,105 (40.0) | ||||
| mean ± SD, g/dL | 13.0 ± 2.1 | 13.0 ± 2.2 | 0.008 | <0.001 | 13.0 ± 2.1 | 13.0 ± 2.2 | 0.009 | <0.001 |
| ≥12 g/dL, n (%) | 308,009 (34.7) | 927,016 (31.7) | 0.063 | <0.001 | 307,303 (34.6) | 290,399 (32.7) | 0.040 | <0.001 |
| Missing | 523,708 (58.9) | 1,798,093 (61.5) | 523,627 (59.0) | 532,350 (60.0) | ||||
Std diff: standardized difference; bold font represents a standardized difference > 0.1; If the patient is less or equal to 10, results show the count as 10.
BMI: Body mass index; CRP: C reactive protein; Propensity score matching was performed on age at index, gender, race, problems related to housing and economic circumstances (proxy to social economic status), problems related to employment and unemployment, problems related to education and literacy, occupational exposure to risk factors, type 2 diabetes mellitus, vitamin D deficiency, hyperlipidemia, asthma, alcoholic liver disease, nicotine dependence, tobacco use (proxy to smoking), mental and behavioral disorders due to psychoactive substance use, depressive episode, chronic kidney disease (CKD), sleep disorders, and BMI characteristic(s).