Table 1.

Comparison of performances of commonly used 3D bioprinting techniques.

Technique	Advantages	Drawbacks	References
Inkjet based	• Low cost • High cell viability (75% – 90%) • Fine printing resolution (~30 μm) • Rapid printing speed (up to 10,000 droplets per second)	• Low cell density (<106 cells mL-1) • Low-viscosity bioinks (~3 – 12 mPa·s) • Risk of nozzle clogging	[45,154-157]
Microextrusion	• High cell density (~108 cells mL-1, e.g., cell spheroids) • High viscosity bioinks (30 mPa·s-6×107 mPa·s×107 mPa·s) • Medium cell viability (40% – 95%)	• Low resolution (~100 μm) • Slow printing speed (~10 – 50 μm s-1) • High shear stress • Nozzle clogging	[158-162]
Light assisted	• Ultrafine printing resolution • High cell viability (>95%) • High cell density (108 cells mL-1) • Low-viscosity cell suspensions (1 – 300 mPa·s), • Free from nozzle clogging	• High cost • Post-printing cell damage • Difficulty in assembling multiple types of bioinks	[159,163,164]