TABLE 1.
Study characteristics
| Author, year & country | Sample characteristics | ESM design (n. scheduled prompts) | Compliance | Emotional state (measure) | NSSI/NSSIT (measure) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ammerman et al. (2017), USA | Current diagnosis of BPD and depressive disorder (n = 51), 74.5% female, mean age = 28.8 (SD = 9.8), 51% African American, 33% White, 10% Asian, 6% “other” | Phone calls, four calls per day for 7 days (28) | M days where at least one assessment completed = 5.5 (of 7) | Negative affect (PANAS) | Non‐validated measure of NSSI occurrence |
| Andrewes et al. (2017a), Australia | 15–25 year olds with first presentation BPD (n = 107), 82.3% female and mean age = 18.1 (SD = 2.7), 91% Caucasian, 2.8% Indigenous Australian, remainder not reported | Smartphone, six prompts per day for 6 days (36) | 52% of entries completed | Negative and positive affect (PANAS‐SF) | Non‐validated measure of NSSI occurrence |
| Andrewes et al. (2017b), Australia | 15–25 year olds with first presentation BPD (n = 107), 82.3% female and mean age = 18.1 (SD = 2.7), 91% Caucasian, 2.8% Indigenous Australian, remainder not reported | Smartphone, six prompts per day for 6 days (36) | 52% of entries completed | Negative affect (PANAS‐SF) | Non‐validated measure of NSSI occurrence |
| Anestis et al. (2012), USA | Female patients with BN (n = 127), mean age = 25.3 (SD = 7.7), 96.9% Caucasian, 1.5% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 0.8% “other” | Palm‐top computer, three prompts per day for 14 days (42) | Not reported | Negative affect (PANAS) | Non‐validated measure of NSSI occurrence based on various validated measures (e.g., Rossotto et al., 1998) |
| Armey et al. (2011), USA | Students with a NSSI history (n = 36), 75% female, mean age = 18.7 (SD = 0.8), ethnicity data unavailable but states “predominantly Caucasian” | Palm‐top computer, six prompts per day for 7 days (42) | 38% of entries completed | Negative affect (PANAS; and PANAS‐X guilt and hostility subscales) | Non‐validated measure of NSSI occurrence |
| Briones‐Buixassa et al. (2021), Spain |
University students who reported self‐injuring ≥5 times in the past year (n = 19), mean age = 19.7 (SD = 1.6), ethnicity data not reported a Patients with BPD diagnosis who reported self‐injuring ≥5 times in the past year (n = 22), mean age = 23.6 (SD = 5.1), ethnicity data not reported a Adults without any past or current mental health disorders (n = 23), mean age = 22.7 (SD = 4.4), ethnicity data not reported a |
Smartphone, three prompts per day for 15 days (45), NSSI‐related event‐contingent entries also allowed | 80% of entries completed | Anger, sadness, guilt, and frustration (no validated measures) | Non‐validated measure of NSSI occurrence |
| Dillon et al. (2021), USA | Veterans with NSSI disorder diagnosis (n = 40), 28% female, mean age = 46.7 (SD = 12.8), 55% Black, 45% White | Smartphone, three prompts per day for 28 days (84), NSSI‐related event‐contingent entries also allowed | 82% of entries completed | Anger/hostility (PANAS‐X) | Non‐validated measure of NSSI occurrence; non‐validated measure of NSSIT occurrence |
| Hepp et al. (2021), USA | Adults with BPD diagnosis (n = 56), 82% female, mean age = 26.0 (SD = 7.2), 84% Caucasian | Palm‐top computer, average of six prompts per day for approximately 21 days (126), plus entries made every morning, and NSSI or drinking‐related event‐contingent entries allowed | M of 89% of entries (in response to random prompts) completed per person | Negative affect (PANAS‐X) | Non‐validated measure of NSSIT occurrence |
| Houben et al. (2017), Belgium | Inpatients with BPD diagnosis (n = 30), 87% female, mean age = 29.0 (SD = 1.6), ethnicity data not reported | Palm‐top computer, 10 prompts per day for 8 days (80) | M of 66% of entries completed per person | Negative and positive affect (no validated measures) | Non‐validated measure of NSSI occurrence |
| Hughes et al. (2019), USA | Adolescents and young adults who reported self‐injuring ≥2 times during previous 2 weeks (n = 47), 68% female, mean age = 19.1 (SD = 1.8), 38% White, 15% Black/African American, 19% Asian, 17% Hispanic/Latino, 11% Multi‐Racial | Smartphone, five prompts per day for 14 days (70), NSSI‐related event‐contingent entries also allowed | M of 71 entries competed per person | Negative affect (no validated measures) | Non‐validated measure of frequency of NSSI/NSSIT |
| Kiekens et al. (2020), Belgium | University students who reported self‐injuring ≥5 days during previous year and reported urges to self‐injure in past month (n = 30), 80% female, Mean age = 20.1 (SD = 1.1), ethnicity data not reported | Smartphone, eight prompts per day for 12 days (96) | Median of 79% of entries completed per person | Negative and positive affect (no validated measures) | Non‐validated measure of frequency of NSSI; non‐validated measure of intensity of NSSIT |
| Kranzler (2016), USA | Adolescents and young adults who reported self‐injuring ≥2 times during previous 2 weeks (n = 24), 66.7% female, mean age = 19.3 (SD = 1.8), 45.8% White, 8.3% African American, 20.8% Asian, 12.5% Hispanic/Latino, 12.5% Multi‐Racial | Smartphone, five prompts per day for 14 days (70), NSSI‐related event‐contingent entries also allowed | All completed ESM protocol and 22 (92%) completed ≥80% of signal contingent entries | Negative and positive affect (no validated measures) | Non‐validated measure of frequency of NSSI; non‐validated measure of intensity of NSSIT |
| Kranzler et al. (2018), USA | Adolescents and young adults who reported self‐injuring ≥2 times during previous 2 weeks (n = 47), 68.1% female, mean age = 19.1 (SD = 1.8), 38.3% White, 14.9% African American, 19.1% Asian, 17% Hispanic/Latino, 10.6% Multi‐Racial | Smartphone, five prompts per day for 14 days (70), NSSI‐related event‐contingent entries also allowed | All completed ESM protocol and 40 (85.1%) completed ≥80% of signal contingent entries | Negative and positive affect (no validated measures) | Non‐validated measure of frequency of NSSI; non‐validated measure of intensity of NSSIT |
| Muehlenkamp et al. (2009), USA | Females with BN diagnosis (n = 131), mean age = 25.3 (SD = 7.6), 96.9% Caucasian, remainder not reported | Palmtop computer, six prompts per day for 14 days (84), NSSI‐related event‐contingent entries also allowed | Not reported | Negative and positive affect (subset of PANAS items) | Non‐validated measure of NSSI occurrence based on various validated measures (e.g., Rossotto et al., 1998) |
| Selby et al. (2013), USA | Undergraduate students and community‐based adults reporting ≥4 dysregulated behaviours over previous 2 weeks (n = 47), 66% female, mean age unclear, 19% African American, 6% Asian American, 2% Native American, 9% Hispanic, remainder not reported | Palm‐top computer, five prompts per day for 14 days (70) | M of 61 entries competed per person (out of 70). Overall compliance >90% | Negative affect (subset of PANAS items) | Frequency of NSSI (no validated measures) |
| Snir et al. (2015), USA | Adults with APD diagnosis (n = 43, 53.5% female, mean age = 32.9, SD = 11.4), BPD diagnosis (n = 56, 80.4% female, mean age = 30.9, SD = 10.1), and healthy controls (n = 53, 71.7% female, mean age = 35.08, SD = 11.9), 7.1% Asian, 19.6% Black/African, 60.7% White, 14.2% “other” | Palm‐top computer, five prompts per day for 21 days (105) | M of 74 entries competed per person (out of 105) | Negative affect (no validated measures) | Occurrence of NSSI and NSSIT (no validated measures) |
| Vansteelandt et al. (2017), Belgium | Adults with BPD diagnosis (n = 32), 84% female, mean age = 28 (SD = 9), ethnicity data not reported | Palm‐top computer, 10 prompts per day for 8 days (80) | M of 50 entries competed per person (out of 80) | Emotional valence and activation (no validated measures) | Frequency of NSSI (no validated measures) |
| Victor et al. (2019), USA | Women taking part in Pittsburgh Girls Study who endorsed self‐injurious urges in previous month (n = 62), mean age = 22.0 (SD = 1.6), 71% African American, 24.2% non‐Hispanic Caucasian, 1.6% Hispanic African American, 4.8% Multiracial/biracial | Smartphone, six prompts per day for 21 days (147) | M of 110 entries per person (out of 147). N = 29 (46.8%) achieved 85% compliance; over two thirds (n = 43, 69.4%) completed at least 70% of expected entries, and 80.6% (n = 50) completed at least 50% of expected entries | Negative affect (no validated measures) | Non‐validated measure of NSSIT occurrence |
| Zaki et al. (2013), USA | Adults with BPD diagnosis and history of NSSI (n = 38, 84% female, mean age = 29.89, SD = 10.60) and healthy controls (n = 42, 83% female, mean age = 32.50, SD = 7.53), 61% White, 18% Black/African, 8% Asian, 18% Hispanic, 5% “other” | Electronic technology‐ not specified, five prompts per day for 21 days (105) | M of 76 entries per person (out of 105) | Negative affect (no validated measures) | Non‐validated measure of NSSI and NSSIT frequency (no validated measures) |
Abbreviations: Borderline personality disorder (BPD), bulimia nervosa (BN), avoidant personality disorder (APD). PANAS (Watson et al., 1988); PANAS‐SF (Kercher, 1992); PANAS‐X (Watson & Clark, 1994).
a
Gender is reported only as a percentage but these values to do not match up with the report sample size for groups and hence have been excluded from this data.