TABLE 2.
Sample characteristics comparing the highest to lowest quartiles of maternal dietary patterns in late pregnancy in MADRES (n = 465)1
| Characteristics | SRC | VOF | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Quartile 1 | Quartile 4 | P | Quartile 1 | Quartile 4 | P | |
| Birth outcomes | ||||||
| Birth weight,2z-score | −0.03 ± 0.10 | −0.11 ± 0.09 | 0.539 | −0.15 ± 0.09 | 0.09 ± 0.08 | 0.037 |
| GA,2z-score | −0.05 ± 0.09 | −0.01 ± 0.09 | 0.736 | −0.10 ± 0.11 | 0.15 ± 0.08 | 0.058 |
| Premature birth (<37 weeks of GA) | 9 (7.7) | 11 (9.5) | 0.626 | 14 (12) | 6 (5.2) | 0.063 |
| SGA3 | 15 (12.8) | 8 (6.9) | 0.317 | 13 (11.1) | 7 (6.0) | 0.128 |
| LGA3 | 12 (10.3) | 10 (8.6) | 0.669 | 8 (6.8) | 12 (10.3) | 0.244 |
| Sociodemographics | ||||||
| Age, years | 30.3 ± 0.58 | 27.7 ± 0.52 | 0.001 | 27.2 ± 0.54 | 30.9 ± 0.56 | <0.001 |
| Education | ||||||
| Less than HS | 44 (37.6) | 28 (24.1) | 0.025 | 32 (27.4) | 31 (31.9) | 0.914 |
| HS diploma or equivalent | 32 (35.0) | 37 (44.0) | 0.447 | 40 (27.4) | 24 (26.7) | 0.020 |
| More than HS | 41 (34.2) | 51 (20.7) | 0.163 | 45 (38.5) | 61 (52.6) | 0.029 |
| Total household income | ||||||
| <$15,000 | 26 (22.2) | 19 (16.4) | 0.258 | 29 (24.8) | 18 (15.5) | 0.076 |
| $15,000–$29,999 | 27 (23.1) | 29 (25.0) | 0.731 | 34 (29.1) | 28 (24.1) | 0.395 |
| >$30,000 | 21 (18.0) | 36 (31.0) | 0.019 | 13 (11.1) | 42 (36.2) | <0.001 |
| Do not know | 43 (36.8) | 32 (27.6) | 0.133 | 41 (35.0) | 28 (24.1) | 0.067 |
| Hispanic/Latina ethnicity or nativity | ||||||
| Non-Hispanic and non-Latina | 20 (17.1) | 35 (30.2) | 0.018 | 30 (25.6) | 25 (21.6) | 0.462 |
| US-born Hispanic/Latina | 32 (27.4) | 51 (44.0) | 0.008 | 53 (45.3) | 30 (25.9) | 0.002 |
| Foreign-born Hispanic/Latina | 65 (55.6) | 30 (25.9) | <0.001 | 34 (29.1) | 61 (52.6) | <0.001 |
| Newborn sex, male | 60 (51.3) | 59 (50.9) | 0.949 | 61 (52.1) | 50 (43.1) | 0.166 |
| Reproductive health | ||||||
| Diabetes status | ||||||
| No diabetes | 93 (79.5) | 104 (89.7) | 0.030 | 106 (90.6) | 91 (78.5) | 0.010 |
| Gestational diabetes | 10 (8.6) | 10 (8.6) | 0.984 | 6 (5.1) | 15 (12.9) | 0.037 |
| Preexisting diabetes | 14 (12.0) | 2 (1.7) | 0.002 | 5 (4.3) | 10 (8.6) | 0.176 |
| Birth order | 2.33 ± 0.11 | 2.12 ± 0.12 | 0.192 | 2.19 ± 0.12 | 2.19 ± 0.11 | 0.992 |
| Prepregnancy BMI | 29.9 ± 0.67 | 27.6 ± 0.53 | 0.008 | 29.5 ± 0.70 | 28.4 ± 0.59 | 0.209 |
| Macronutrients4 | ||||||
| Total energy intake, kcal/d | 1417 ± 39.3 | 2538 ± 46.2 | <0.001 | 1748 ± 51.3 | 2155 ± 53.2 | <0.001 |
| Carbohydrates, % total energy | 53.0 ± 0.85 | 48.5 ± 0.50 | <0.001 | 50.6 ± 0.84 | 50.0 ± 0.70 | 0.574 |
| Added sugars, % total energy | 9.11 ± 0.59 | 12.2 ± 0.47 | <0.001 | 11.0 ± 0.60 | 8.80 ± 0.38 | 0.002 |
| Protein, % total energy | 18.7 ± 0.51 | 15.1 ± 0.27 | <0.001 | 16.5 ± 0.45 | 17.7 ± 0.41 | 0.055 |
| Total fat, % total energy | 29.9 ± 0.61 | 37.4 ± 0.46 | <0.001 | 33.9 ± 0.66 | 34.2 ± 0.58 | 0.770 |
| Saturated fat, % total energy | 8.88 ± 0.24 | 12.9 ± 0.31 | <0.001 | 11.8 ± 0.40 | 10.6 ± 0.25 | 0.010 |
| Dietary fiber, g/1000 kcal | 16.9 ± 0.77 | 21.2 ± 0.83 | <0.001 | 14.8 ± 0.57 | 25.4 ± 0.85 | <0.001 |
| Micronutrients4 | ||||||
| Folate (DFE), μg/d | 467 ± 22.7 | 649 ± 23.5 | <0.001 | 507 ± 27.1 | 621 ± 23.9 | 0.002 |
| Choline, mg/d | 280 ± 12.1 | 371 ± 12.8 | <0.001 | 270 ± 11.3 | 391 ± 12.3 | <0.001 |
| Calcium, mg/d | 823 ± 43.0 | 1329 ± 40.4 | <0.001 | 924 ± 45.7 | 1229 ± 35.8 | <0.001 |
| Vitamin D, μg/d | 4.90 ± 0.44 | 5.88 ± 0.34 | 0.078 | 4.37 ± 0.29 | 6.30 ± 0.48 | 0.001 |
| Vitamin B12, μg/d | 4.22 ± 0.23 | 5.65 ± 0.27 | <0.001 | 4.24 ± 0.25 | 5.28 ± 0.24 | 0.003 |
| Iron, mg/d | 13.2 ± 0.52 | 18.8 ± 0.64 | <0.001 | 14.6 ± 0.70 | 17.6 ± 0.62 | <0.001 |
| Selenium, μg/d | 87.2 ± 2.93 | 133 ± 4.23 | <0.001 | 99.8 ± 3.29 | 125 ± 4.32 | 0.001 |
| Zinc, mg/d | 9.26 ± 0.41 | 13.3 ± 0.43 | <0.001 | 9.83 ± 0.46 | 12.6 ± 0.39 | <0.001 |
Values are means ± SDs or n (%). P values were calculated with an ANOVA for continuous variables and Pearson chi-squared tests for categorical variables. Abbreviations: DFE, dietary folate equivalents; GA, gestational age at birth; HS, high school; LGA, large for gestational age; MADRES, Maternal and Developmental Risks from Environmental and Social Stressors Study; SGA, small for gestational age; SRC, dietary pattern of solid fat, refined grain, and cheese; VOF, dietary pattern of vegetables, oils, and fruit.
Z-scores were calculated by standardizing birth weight and gestational age at birth by newborn sex.
Being SGA was defined as having a newborn sex-standardized birth weight <10th percentile and being LGA was defined as having a newborn sex-standardized birth weight >90th percentile (28).