Table 4. Application of mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicle-integrated biomaterial scaffolds in orthopaedic diseases.
| Source of extracellular vesicles | Extracellular vesicle modification | Scaffolds | Main function | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| hMSCs | Osteoinduction | 3D-printed titanium alloy scaffolds | Induce osteogenic differentiation of hMSCs | 99 |
| BMSCs | Osteoinduction | Functionalised decalcified bone matrix scaffolds | Pro-angiogenic and pro-osteogenic regeneration | 102 |
| hASCs | Osteoinduction | Polydopamine-coating PLGA scaffolds | Enhance the migration, proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs | 103 |
| hiPS-MSCs | – | Exosome/β-TCP combination scaffold | Activating the PI3K/Akt signalling pathway and promoting osteogenic differentiation | 104 |
| hiPS-MSCs | – | β-TCP scaffolds | Pro-angiogenic and pro-osteogenic differentiation | 105 |
| hucMSCs | – | CHA/SF/GCS/DFPEG hydrogel | Promote osteogenic differentiation | 106 |
| hGMSCs | – | 3D-PLA scaffolds | Promote osteogenic differentiation | 107 |
| hucMSCs | – | HA-ALG hydrogel scaffolds | Promote the proliferation, migration, and osteogenic differentiation | 108 |
Note: 3D: three-dimensional; Akt: protein kinase B; BMSCs: bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells; CHA: coralline hydroxyapatite; DFPEG: difunctionalised polyethylene glycol; GCS: glycol chitosan; HA-ALG: hydroxyapatite-embedded in situ cross-linked hyaluronic acid-alginate; hASCs: human adipose-derived stem cells; hBMSCs: human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells; hGMSCs: human gingival mesenchymal stem cells; hiPS-MSCs: human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived mesenchymal stem cells; hMSCs: human mesenchymal stem cell; hucMSCs: human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; PLA: polylactic acid; PLGA: poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid); SF: silk fibroin; β-TCP: β-tricalcium phosphate.