Table 2.

Summary of reviewed 3D-printed phantom prototypes.

Organ part	Phantom name	Materials	Build methods	Applications	Ref.
Head	Apical granuloma phantom with periodontal ligaments	MED690 photopolymer, cavities filled with SUP705	Conventional impressions alongside CT data	Simulation of root tip resection for dental students	Hanisch et al.38
	Head phantom	Photo-cured acrylic resin material (for both the head phantom and eye inserts)	Eye insert: Previous eye models were utilized. Head phantom: HRCT image of a human skull embedded in PMMA	Forming task-specific phantoms for dosimetry purposes	Homolka et al.39
Chest	Multi-layer breast phantom	Interior containers made from composite plastic. Silicon composite-based skin. Individual chambers can be filled with any material to mimic the breast density of the desired patient.	The breast’s anatomy was simplified into four compartments using anatomic representations and CT scans, of which four containers were 3D printed.	More realistic construction of breast phantoms	Faenger et al.40
	Lung airway phantom	Transparent photopolymer resin	Real patient data were used to construct a 3D airway model. This was modified to ensure the entire structure was hollow and subsequently 3D printed in three parts.	Training on medical tools used for image-guided lung intervention	Zhao et al.41
	Phantom trachea with main bronchi	Lung parenchyma: Tango™ photopolymer. Cartilage rings: Mixture of photopolymers (Vero Color Blue and Tango™) Stricture: Similar mixture of photopolymers	CT, ultrasonography, and endoscopy medical images of normal anatomy were utilized to segment and subsequently printed the main airway	Determine optimal contrast agent contrast/saline ratio for minimized risk in balloon dilatation	Kim et al.42
Abdomen	JAAA (juxta-renal abdominal aortic aneurysm) phantom	Aortic wall made from FullCure 930 TangoPlus photopolymer. Thrombus chamber filled with ultrasound gel.	Diagnostic CTA imaging of FEVAR suitable patient used for the segmentation of JAAA. Modifications made to STL file to allow proper behavior of demonstration FEVAR graft. Phantom printed in two parts and joined by silicon gel.	X-ray guided vascular simulation of JAAA repair	Meess et al.43
	Biliary tree phantom	Red acrylonitrile butadiene styrene plastic	An MRCP dataset of a patient with distal common bile duct cholangiocarcinoma with dilated bile ducts was used to form the 3D STL file. Support cylinders were made, and the biliary lumen was hollowed for subsequent printing.	Endoscopic biliary intervention training	Bundy et al.44
	Radiopaque abdominal phantom	CT image-based model printed by using aqueous potassium iodide solution. Images separated by polyethylene. Entire phantomcovered by plastic film.	Abdominal CT dataset images were printed to scale with the original patient size on paper using radiopaque potassium iodide. Each image was separated by a 1 mm layer of polyethylene.	Simulation of CT-guided percutaneous procedures	Jahnke et al.45