TABLE 1.

Crucial applications of stem cells for craniofacial bone regeneration

S. no	Cells	Bone engineered	Remark	Objective	Reference
1	Bone marrow stromal cells (MSCs)	Cranial defects	Three‐dimensional computerized tomography (CT) scan revealed an almost complete repair of the defect of the experimental group at 18 weeks. This study may provide insight for the future clinical repair of cranial defect	The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of using autologous MSCs to repair cranial bone defects by a tissue‐engineering approach	112
2	Dental mesenchymal cell	Mandibular defects	This pilot study supports the feasibility of tissue‐engineering approaches for coordinated autologous tooth and mandible reconstruction, and provides a basis for future improvement of this technique for eventual clinical use in humans	Investigated simultaneous mandibular and tooth reconstruction using a Yucatan minipig model	113
3	Genetically engineered bone marrow‐derived mesenchymal stem cells overexpressing hypoxia‐inducible factor‐1α	Calvarial defects in rats	HIF‐1α‐overexpressing BMSCs dramatically improved the repair of critical‐sized calvarial defects, including increased bone volume, bone mineral density, blood vessel number, and blood vessel area in vivo	The hypothesis that HIF‐1α gene therapy could be used to promote the repair of critical‐sized bone defects	114
4	Bone marrow‐derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) genetically engineered transient expression of osteogenic/angiogenic factors and growth factor expression	Calvarial bone healing	BMSCs accelerated the bone remodeling and regenerated the bone through the natural intramembranous pathway	Augmented healing of critical‐size calvarial defects by baculovirus‐engineered MSCs that persistently express growth factors	115
5	Amniotic epithelial cells	Maxillary sinus	The obtained data suggest that scaffold integration and bone deposition are positively influenced by allotransplantated oAEC	The bone regenerative property of an emerging source of progenitor cells, the amniotic epithelial cells (AEC), loaded on a calcium‐phosphate synthetic bone substitute, made by direct rapid prototyping (rPT) technique, was evaluated in an animal study	107
6	Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells	Rat cranial defects	hUCMSC and hBMSC groups generally had statistically similar bone mineral density, new bone amount and vessel density	hUCMSC and hBMSC seeding on macroporous calcium phosphate cement (CPC), and to compare their bone regeneration in critical‐sized cranial defects in rats	116
7	Amniotic fluid mesenchymal cells engineered on MgHA/collagen‐based scaffold	Sinus augmentation	The osteoinductive effect of a biomimetic commercial scaffold may be significantly improved by the presence of ovine AFMC	To evaluate whether commercial magnesium‐enriched hydroxyapatite (MgHA)/collagen‐based scaffold engineered with ovine amniotic fluid mesenchymal cells (oAFMC) could improve the bone regeneration process in vivo	117