TABLE 1.

Scaffolds utilized in cardiac tissue engineering, their fabrication method, properties, and challenging disadvantages

Material	Fabrication method	Properties	Disadvantages	References
GelMA+Alginate	3D Bioprinting	Controlled anisotropy, seeding endothelialized myocardium, microfibrous hydrogel	Non‐conductive	89
Polyester‐carbon nanotube	Molding	Elastomeric, conductive, degradable, swell‐able	Toxic in a higher amount of CNT	96
Poly(glycerol sebacate)	Microfabrication techniques	Recapitulating cardiac anisotropy, Accordion‐Like Honeycombs, seeded with cultured neonatal rat heart cells, elastomeric, promoting aligned heart cells	Non‐conductive	97
Chitosan/silk fibroin	Layer‐by‐layer electrospinning	Seeded with adipose tissue‐derived mesenchymal stem cells, nontoxicity, biodegradability, anti‐inflammatory, high cohesive strength, hydrophilic nature	Non‐conductive	98
Silk–polypyrrole	Molding	Biocompatible, stable, electroconductive	Without elasticity	99
Graphene–polyethylene glycol	Molding	Anisotropic electrical conductivity	Without elasticity	100
Poly(l‐lactic acid)/ polyaniline	Electrospinning	Enhanced conductivity, good cell viability, and promoting effect on differentiation	Without elasticity	101
Pericardial matrix/CNT	Decellularization/dispersion	Injectable, thermoresponsive	Without elasticity	102
Polyethylene glycol/gold	Crosslinking	Improvement in cellular differentiation	Without elasticity	103
Aniline pentamer‐modified polyurethane/PCL	Blending/porogen leaching	Conductivity supported neonatal cardiomyocytes (CMs) adhesion and growth	Phase separation	104