TABLE 1.
Characteristics of included studies on the association between healthy dietary patterns, foods, and risk of glioma (–2022).
| References | Location | Study design | Total number of subjects | Age | Method used to identify dietary pattern | Adjustment or matched for in analyses | RR (95% CI) for highest vs. lowest category |
| Kuan et al. (9) | UK, USA | Cohort | 692,176 (1,173 cases); 470,780 (1,005 cases); 99,148 (135 cases) | 50–74 years | Priori | Height, body mass index, smoking, alcohol intake, level of educational attainment, region of residence, parity, oral contraceptive use, and use of menopausal hormones for women. | AHEI: 1.14 (1.01–1.28); aMED: 1.24 (1.05–1.46); DASH: 1.19 (1.05–1.34); 1.03 (1.0–1.06) for total fruit; 1.03 (0.99–1.06) for total vegetables; 1.03 (0.97–1.08) for nuts; 1.03 (0.98–1.08) for grains; 0.97 (0.84–1.12) for fish; 1.00 (0.98–1.02) for dairy products |
| Holick et al. (10) | USA | Cohort | 289,915 (296 cases) | 30–75 years | NA | Age and total calorie intake | 1.41 (0.95–2.10) for fruits; 1.17 (0.78–1.75) for vegetables |
| Chen et al. (11) | USA | Case-control | 236 cases 449 controls |
≥21 years | NA | Age, age squared, sex, TEI, respondent type, education level, family history, and farming experience. | 0.5 (0.3–1.0) for vegetables 1.0 (0.6–1.7) for fruits 0.60 (0.30–1.20) for fish 1.80 (1.00–3.30) for dairy products |
| Mousavi et al. (18) | Iran | Case-control | 128 cases 256 controls |
20–75 years | Priori | Age, sex, energy intake, physical activity, family history of cancer, family history of glioma, marital status, education, high-risk job, high-risk living area, cell phone usage time, supplement use, history of exposure to the radiographic X-ray, history of head trauma, history of allergy, history of hypertension, smoking status, exposure to chemicals, medication use, personal hair dye use, frequent fried food intake, frequent use of barbecue, canned foods, microwave, refined grains, tea, coffee, egg, and BMI. | Mediterranean dietary pattern: 0.36 (0.16–0.78) |
| Benisi-Kohansal et al. (19) | Iran | Case-control | 128 cases 256 controls |
20–75 years | Prior | Age, sex, energy intake, physical activity, family history of cancer, family history of glioma, marital status, education, high-risk occupation, high-risk residential area, duration of cell phone use, supplement use, history of exposure to the radiographic X-ray, history of head trauma, history of allergy, history of hypertension, smoking status, exposure to chemicals, drug use, personal hair dye use, frequent fried food intake, frequent use of barbecue, canned foods, microwave, and BMI. | DASH diet: 0.28 (0.13–0.57) Nuts intake: 0.24 (0.11–0.55) Dairy products intake: 0.56 (0.26–1.24) Whole grain intake: 1.06 (0.48–2.30) |
| Mousavi et al. (20) | Iran | Case-control | 128 cases 256 controls |
20–75 years | Posteriori | Age, sex, energy intake, physical activity, family history of glioma, marital status, high-risk job, high-risk living area, duration of cell phone usage, supplement use, history of exposure to the radiographic X-ray, history of dental photography, history of head trauma, smoking status, exposure to chemicals, personal hair dye use, frequent use of fried food, and microwave. | hPDI: 0.32 (0.18–0.57) |
| Malmir et al. (21) | Iran | Case-control | 128 cases 256 controls |
43.1 years | Posteriori | Age, sex, energy intake, physical activity, family history of cancers, family history of glioma, marital status, education, high-risk occupation, high-risk residential area, duration of cell phone use, supplement use, history of exposure to the radiographic X-ray, history of head trauma, history of allergy, history of hypertension, smoking status, exposure to chemicals, drug use, personal hair dye, frequent fried food intake, frequent use of barbecue, canned foods, microwave, and BMI. | Nutrient pattern1: 0.71 (0.35–1.42) Nuts intake: 0.34 (0.15–0.76) |
| Ebrahimpour-Koujan et al. (22) | Iran | Case-control | 128 cases 256 controls |
20–75 years | Posteriori | Age, gender, physical activity, family history of cancer, family history of glioma, marital status, education, high-risk job, high-risk living area, duration of cell phone use, supplement use, history of exposure to the radiographic X-ray, history of head trauma, history of allergy, history of hypertension, smoking status, exposure to chemicals, medication use, personal hair dye use, frequent fried food intake, frequent use of barbecue, canned foods and microwave, dietary intakes of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin B12, vitamin B6, zinc, copper, potassium, calcium, selenium, total fiber, salt, cholesterol, methionine, and BMI. | LCD: 0.32 (0.12–0.81) |
| Sadeghi et al. (23) | Iran | Case-control | 128 cases 256 controls |
43.1 years | Priori | Energy intake, family history of glioma, marital status, high-risk occupation, high-risk residential area, supplement use, history of exposure to radiographic X-rays, history of head trauma, smoking, drug use, personal hair dye use, frequent fried food intake and frequent use of a microwave, BMI. | AHEI: 0.26 (0.12–0.56) |
| Soltani et al. (24) | Iran | Case-control | 128 cases 256 controls |
20–75 years | Priori | Age, sex, energy intake, physical activity, family history of cancer, family history of glioma, marital status, education, high-risk occupation, high-risk residential area, duration of cell phone use, supplement use, drug use, history of exposure to the radiographic X-ray, history of head trauma, history of allergy, history of hypertension, smoking status, exposure to chemicals, personal hair dye use, frequent fried food intake, frequent use of barbecue, canned foods, microwave, and BMI. | MIND diet: 0.39 (0.18–0.84) |
| Ebrahimpour-Koujan et al. (25) | Iran | Case-control | 128 cases 256 controls |
20–75 years | Priori | Age, sex, marital status, education, high-risk occupation, high-risk residential area, duration of cell phone use, supplement use, drug use, smoking status, exposure to chemicals, personal hair dye use, family history of cancer, family history of glioma, history of exposure to the radiographic X-ray, history of head trauma, history of allergy, history of hypertension, frequent fried food intake, frequent use of barbecue, canned foods, and microwave. | HLS: 0.29 (0.12–0.70) |
| Rigi et al. (26) | Iran | Case-control | 128 cases 256 controls |
20–75 years | Priori | Age, sex, and energy intake, physical activity, family history of cancer, family history of glioma, marital status, education, high-risk residential area, duration of cell phone use, supplement use, history of exposure to the radiographic X-ray, history of head trauma, history of allergy, history of hypertension, smoking status, exposure to chemicals, drug use, personal hair dye use, frequent fried food intake, frequent use of barbecue, canned foods and microwave, red and processed meat, fish, tea and coffee and, sugar-sweetened beverage, egg, total fat, dietary fiber, cholesterol, folate, selenium | DPI: 0.43 (0.19–0.97) |
| Cabaniols et al. (32) | France | Case-control | 79 cases 83 controls |
≥18 years | NA | Age and sex | 0.85 (0.49–1.47) for fruit |
| Terry et al. (33) | Germany, France, Canada, Sweden, Australia, USA | Case-control | 1,185 cases 2,486 controls |
20–80 years | NA | Age, sex, center, and the following food groups: leafy green vegetables, yellow-orange vegetables, cured meat, non-cured meat, fresh fish, dairy eggs, grains, and citrus fruit. | 1.4 (1.1–1.8) for fruit 1.17 (0.78–1.75) for vegetables 0.90 (0.70–1.10) for fish |
| Blowers et al. (34) | USA | Case-control | 94 cases 91 controls |
25–74 years | NA | Matched the patient on age (within 5 years) and race (black or white). | 1.3 (0.5–3.0) for fruit 1.3 (0.5–3.2) for vegetables 0.40 (0.20–1.10) for fish 0.90 (0.40–2.20) for nuts 2.10 (0.80–5.20) for dairy products |
| Boeing et al. (35) | Germany | Case-control | 115 cases 418 controls |
20–75 years | NA | Age, gender, tobacco-smoking, and alcohol consumption | 1.1 (0.6–1.9) for fruit 0.9 (0.5–1.7) for vegetables 0.70 (0.40–1.40) for fish |
| Burch et al. (36) | Canada | Case-control | 215 cases 228 controls |
25–80 years | NA | Matched to each case on the basis of sex, area of residence, marital status, year of birth (within 5 years), date of diagnosis (within 1 year) for live cases, and date of death (within 1 year) for dead cases. | 1.33 (0.56–3.16) for vegetables 0.58 (0.34–1.00) for fruit |
| Giles et al. (37) | Australia | Case-control | 409 cases 409 controls |
20–70 years | NA | Alcohol and tobacco | Men: 1.01 (0.62–1.63) for vegetables 1.51 (0.95–2.39) for fruits 1.29 (0.79–2.12) for fish 1.36 (0.76–2.35) for nuts 0.66 (0.37–1.25) for whole grain Women: 0.53 (0.29–0.95) for vegetables 0.69 (0.36–1.31) for fruits 0.63 (0.32–1.26) for fish 0.92 (0.49–1.75) for nuts 0.92 (0.49–1.75) for whole grain |
| Hu et al. (38) | China | Case-control | 218 cases 436 controls |
Mean: 39.6 years | NA | Income, education, number of years, drinking alcohol, and occupational exposures | 0.51 (0.29–0.89) for vegetables 0.28 (0.16–0.51) for fruits |
| Hu et al. (39) | China | Case-control | 73 cases 311 controls |
20–74 years | NA | Income, education, cigarette smoking, alcohol intake, selected occupational exposures, and total energy intake | 0.29 (0.1–0.7) for vegetables 0.15 (0.1–0.4) for fruits 0.38 (0.2–0.9) for fresh fish |
| Xu et al. (40) | China | Case-control | 86 cases 258 controls |
≥18 years | NA | Age, sex, and economic conditions | Men: 0.84 (0.73–0.96) for vegetables 0.85 (0.77–0.95) for fruits Women: 0.81 (0.73–0.89) for vegetables 0.70 (0.54–0.91) for fruit |
| Mills et al. (42) | USA | Cohort | 34,000 (20 cases) | ≥25 years | NA | Age and sex | 0.85 (0.28–2.60) for fruit |
| Preston-Martin et al. (41) | USA | Case-control | 202 cases 202 controls |
25–69 years | NA | NA | 0.8 (0.4–1.6) for fruit |
| Dubrow et al. (43) | USA | Cohort | 545,770 (585 cases) | 50–71 years | NA | Sex, age, race, energy intake, education, height, and history of cancer at baseline | 1.17 (0.89–1.53) for vegetables 1.16 (0.89–1.52) for fruits |
BMI, body mass index; USA, United States; UK, United Kingdom; AHEI, alternative healthy eating index; aMED, alternate Mediterranean diet; DASH, dietary approaches to stop hypertension; hPDI, healthy plant-based diet; LCD, low carbohydrate diet; MIND, Mediterranean-DASH diet intervention for neurodegenerative delay diet; HLS, healthy lifestyle score; DPI, dietary phytochemical index.