Table 2.
Anticancer mechanism of TQ against pancreatic cancer.
| reagent | experimental model | mechanisms | effects | references |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| in vitro studies | ||||
| TQ | PANC-1 | none | ↓proliferation | (27) |
| TQ | FG/COLO357, CD18/HPAF | ↓MUC4, ↑JNK, ↑p38 MAPK, ↑TGF-β, ↑ROS, ↑FAK | ↑apoptosis, ↓migration | (28) |
| TQ | PANC-1 | ↑ROS, ↓MMP- 9 | ↑apoptosis, ↓migration | (29) |
| TQ | MiaPaCa-2, ASPC-1 | ↑p53, ↑p21, ↑Bax, ↓Bcl-2, ↑Bax/Bcl-2, ↑H4, ↓HDAC, ↓G0/G1 | ↑apoptosis,↓proliferation | (30) |
| TQ | PANC-1, | ↓NF-κB, ↓MMP- 9, ↓CD34 | ↓migration,↓invasion | (31) |
| TQ | BxPC-3 | ↓FAK/PI3K/AKt, ↓F-actin | ↓migration,↓invasion | (32) |
| TQ and juglone | MIA PaCa-2 | none | ↑apoptosis | (33) |
| TQ and GEM | PANC-1, AsPC-1, BxPC-3 | ↓NF-κB,↓Bcl-2, ↓Bcl-xl, ↓XIAP, ↑Bax, ↑cytochrome c, ↑caspase-3, ↑caspase-9, ↓Notch1/PTEN, ↓PI3K/AKT/mTOR, ↓G0/G1 | ↑apoptosis, ↑chemosensitivity | (34) |
| TQ and GEM | BxPC-3 | ↓Bcl-2,↓Bcl-cl, ↓XIAP, ↓survivin, ↑caspase-3, ↑caspase-9 | ↑apoptosis,↓proliferation,↑chemosensitivity | (35) |
| TQ and GEM | HPAC, BxPC-3, Panc-1, MDA Panc-28, COLO 357, L3.6pl | ↓NF-κB | ↑apoptosis,↑chemosensitivity | (36) |
| TQ, GEM, oxaliplatin | BxPC-3, HPAC | ↓survivin, ↓Bcl-xl, ↓ XIAP, ↑caspase-3, ↑caspase-9, ↑PARP, ↓COX-2, PGE2 ↓, G0/G1, ↓S | ↑apoptosis,↓proliferation,↑chemosensitivity | (37) |
| TQ and GEM | PANC-1, MIA PaCa-2 | ↓PKM2 | ↑apoptosis,↓proliferation,↑chemosensitivity | (38) |
| TQ and GEM | PANC-1, MIA PaCa-2, | ↓procaspase3, ↓PARP, ↓PKM2 | ↑apoptosis,↑chemosensitivity | (39) |
| TQ and GEM | PANC-1 | ↓procaspase3 | ↑apoptosis,↑chemosensitivity | (40) |
| TQ and GEM | BxPC-3 | none | ↑apoptosis,↓proliferation,↑chemosensitivity | (41) |
| TQ | HS766T | ↓MCP-1, ↓NF-κB,↓TNF-α | ↑anti-inflammatory | (42) |
| TQ | PANC-1 | ↓Ki-67, ↓CD34, ↓VEGF | ↓angiogenesis | (43) |
| in vivo studies | ||||
| TQ | mice | ↓NF-κB, ↓MMP- 9, ↓CD34 | ↓metastasis | (31) |
| TQ and GEM | mice | ↓XIAP, ↓MMP-9 | ↓growth, ↓metastasis,↑chemosensitivity | (44) |
| TQ, GEM, oxaliplatin | mice | ↓survivin, ↓Bcl-xl, ↓ XIAP, ↑caspase-3, ↑caspase-9, ↑PARP, ↓COX-2, PGE2 ↓, G0/G1, ↓S | ↓weights of tumors, ↓local invasion, ↓lymph node metastasis | (37) |
| TQ | mice | ↓EPCs, ↓VEGF | ↓angiogenesis | (43) |
TQ, thymoquinone; GEM, gemcitabine; MUC4, mucin 4; JNK, c-jun NH2 terminal kinases; p38 MAPK, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-β; ROS, reactive oxygen species; FAK, focal adhesion kinase; Bax, Bcl-2-associated X protein; Bcl-2, B cell leukemia/lymphoma-2; COX-2, cyclooxygenase 2; PGE2, prostaglandin E2; HDAC, histone deacetylase; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-B; MMP- 9, matrix metallopeptidase 9; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; XIAP, X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein; Akt, phosphorylated protein kinase B; PI3K, phosphoinositide 3 kinase; Notch 1, neurogenic gene notch homolog protein 1; PTEN, phosphorase and tensin homolog; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; PKM2, pyruvate kinase isozyme type M2; PARP, poly ADP-ribose polymerase; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; EPCs, vascular endothelial progenitor cells; ↑, increase or activate; ↓, decrease or inhibit.