Table 3.
Mechanism of of thymoquinone carriers.
| carriers | size | mechanisms | effects | references |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| D1T | 110-120 nm | ↑absorption, ↑plasma concentration, ↑bioavailability, ↑clearance, ↓distribution volume | ↓pancreatic tumor | (52) |
| TQ-SLNs | none | ↑efficiency, ↑ATPases function, ↓GFAP, ↓pro-inflammatory cytokines | ↓Huntington’s disease | (53) |
| TQ-SLNs | 188.66 ± 8.94 nm | ↑affinity, ↑binding capacity, ↑5-HT, ↑DA, ↑NE | ↑antidepressant activity | (54) |
| TQ-SLNs | 66.1 ± 10.96 nm | ↑bioavailability (5 fold), ↑stability, ↓SGOT, ↓SGPT, ↓ALP | ↑liver function | (55) |
| TQ-NLCs | 100~200 nm | ↑bioavailability (3.97 fold), ↓ALT, ↓AST, ↓malondialdehyde, ↑GSH | ↑liver function | (56) |
| TQ-PNCs | <100 nm | ↑bioavailability (3.86 fold), ↓ALP, ↓ALT, ↓AST, ↓bilirubin | ↑liver function | (57) |
| TQ-NLCs | 35.66 ± 0.1235 nm | ↑stability, ↑apoptosis, ↑cell cycle arrest, ↓proliferation | ↓breast cancer | (58) |
| TQ-NLCs | 75 ± 2.4 nm | ↑pharmacokinetic | ↑gastroprotective activity | (59) |
| TQ-Nps | <50 nm | ↑efficiency, ↑anti-migratory, ↓toxic to normal cells, ↑miR-34a, ↓Rac1 | ↓breast cancer | (60) |
| NTQ | 100 nm | ↓toxic to normal cells, ↓AST, ↓ALT, ↓ALP, ↓LDH, ↓NF-kB, ↓COX-2 | ↑liver function | (61) |
| TQ-CD | 400 nm | ↓toxic to normal cells, ↑solubility, ↑antiproliferative | ↓breast cancer | (62) |
| TQ-NCs | <100 nm | ↑release profile, ↑efficiency | ↑hypoglycemic effect | (63) |
| TQ-NP1 | 150 ~ 200 nm | ↑drug-targeting potential, ↑efficiency | ↓Alzheimer’s disease | (64) |
| TQ-LP | 100 nm | ↑bioavailability, ↓proliferation | ↓breast cancer | (65) |
| TQ-LP | <70 nm | ↑skin penetration, ↑release profile, ↑skin compatibility, ↓pro-inflammatory cytokines | ↓psoriasis | (16) |
TQ, thymoquinone; D1T, cationic liposomal formulation of thymoquinone; TQ-SLNs, thymoquinone-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles; TQ-NLCs, thymoquinone-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers; TQ-PNCs, thymoquinone-loaded phospholipid nanoconstructs; TQ-Nps, thymoquinone-encapsulated nanoparticles; NTQ, synthesized p-aminophenyl-1-thio-β-d-galactopyranoside-coated N-isopropyl acrylamide nanoparticles followed by the encapsulation of thymoquinone; TQ-CD, thymoquinone-loaded cyclodextrin nanoparticles; TQ-NCs, polymeric nanocapsules of thymoquinone; TQ-NP1, intranasal thymoquinone-loaded nanoparticles; TQ-LP, thymoquinone-loaded liposomes; GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein; NFκB, nuclear factor kappa-B; 5-HT, 5 hydroxytryptamine; DA, dopamine; NE, norepinephrine; ALT, alanine amino transferase; AST, aspartate amino transferase; GSH, hepatic reduced glutathione; SGOT, serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase; SGPT, serum glutamic-pyruvic transaminase; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; LDH, lactic dehydrogenase; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-B; COX-2, cyclooxygenase-2; ↑, increase; ↓, decrease or inhibit.