Table 4.
Cross-sectional research
| References | Population focus | Focus | Data collected | Sample n | Gender | Age | Ethnicity | Summary findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baxter [142] | BN, AN (TRH) | Mental health conditions among Māori participants in Te Rau Hinengaro | CIDI for DSM-IV | 2595 |
60% F 40% M |
16+ | 100% Māori (only Māori participants from TRH) | ED lifetime prevalence of 0.7% AN and 2.4% BN |
| Bensley [143]* | NC (OSSLS2) | Body image among adolescents and association with different lifestyle behaviours | Otago Students Secondary School Lifestyle Survey (OSSLS2): Subscales from the Food, Feelings, Behaviours, and Body Image Questionnaire (FFBBQ), BMI, DQI | 681 |
56% F 44% M |
15–18 | 74% NZ European, 9% Māori, 1% Pasifika, 7% Asian, 8% other | Females had higher scores on all subscales (figure dissatisfaction, fear of weight gain, dietary restraint, and concern about eating and weight), as did those who were overweight and obese. High levels of body dissatisfaction not limited to those who were overweight and obese) |
| Blackmore [144]* | NC | Explored self-induced vomiting after drinking alcohol in relation to eating disorder pathology among university students | EAT-26, MAST, Drinking Habits Questionnaire, BULIT-R, CES-D, AUDIT | 261 |
59% F 38% M |
17–35 | Predominantly European | For females, alcohol-related self-induced vomiting was associated with eating disorder pathology |
| Boyes [145] | NC | Healthy and unhealthy dieting behaviours in university couples | Perceived Relationship Quality Components Scale, RSES, BDI-II, WCBS, additional Likert scales | 114 |
50% F 50% M |
15–57 | Predominantly European | More body satisfaction among F with higher SE and lower depressive symptoms. More depressive symptoms and relationship dissatisfaction for men associated with more dieting and BD in F partners. M dieted more when F partners higher SE and fewer depressive symptoms |
| Brewis [146] | NC | Body image in Samoan participants living in Samoa and New Zealand | BMI, custom questionnaires | 226 |
55% F 45% M |
25–55 | 100% Samoan | Body dissatisfaction and slim ideals common, weight loss attempts and body perceptions not different between those above versus below BMI of 27 |
| Bushnell (1990) [147] | Population sample (CPES) | Bulimia prevalence in Christchurch population sample, oversampled for younger women | Diagnostic Interview Schedule | 1498 |
66% F 34% M |
18–64 | 93% European | Widespread disordered eating behaviours/attitudes, cohort effect for younger women |
| Chan [148] | NC | Relationship between perfectionism and ED symptoms in Chinese immigrants, and the role of ethnic identity | EDI, PANAS, MEIM, MCSDS | 301 |
59% F 41% M |
M 22.37 | 100% reported Chinese ancestry | Relationship between ED symptomatology and perfectionism mediated by cultural identity. Strong sense of belonging and attachment to Chinese culture appears to be protective |
| Dameh [149]* | AN | Evaluating insight, as well as factors that may affect this, in participants meeting DSM-IV criteria for anorexia nervosa | Markova and Berrios Insight Scale (MBIS), SAI, EAT-26 | 18 | F | 17–43 | Not stated | Impaired insight in those with AN was associated with features of illness, ED/behaviours and history of abuse |
| Durso [150] | NC | Testing weight bias scale and associations between self-directed weight bias and other factors | Weight Bias Internalisation Scale | 198 (1 NZ participant) | Not specified for NZ | Not stated for NZ | Not stated for NZ | Scale had good internal consistency and linked to other factors related to body image and ED |
| Fear [151] | NC | Self-reported disordered eating/attitudes in female secondary school students | BMI, EDE-2, BMI | 363 | F |
M 14.9 (SD 0.4) |
77% European, 16% Māori, 3% Samoan, 4% other | Most students wished to be smaller size, high prevalence of ED behaviours |
| Foliaki [152] | Population sample | Prevalence of psychiatric disorders among Pasifika in New Zealand | CIDI | 2374 | 52% F, 48% M | 16 + | 100% Pasifika | 12-month prevalence 1.5%; lifetime ED prevalence 4.4% |
| Gendall [153] | NC | Exploring food cravings in young women within the community | DIGS, custom food craving questionnaire | 101 | F | 18–45 | 98% European | History of cravings common (58%) within this sample. Narrowing definition meant that fewer (28%) met criteria. Multiple core features more common for those with strong cravings |
| Gendall [154] | NC | Characteristics of individuals who reported cravings for food | DIGS, TCI, EDI | 101 | F | 23–46 | Not stated | Food cravings associated with alcohol abuse/dependence and also novelty seeking, high rates of ED symptoms |
| Gendall [155] | AN | Food cravings and intensity of craving in those with past history of AN and NC | DIGS, TFEQ, TCI | 101 | F | 35 ± 6 | Not stated | Greater proportion of those with previous AN reported strong and more intense cravings |
| Gendall [156] | NC | Can aspects of restrained eating be predicted using the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) | DIGS, TCI, TFEQ | 101 | F | 18–45 | Not stated | Low self-directedness related to higher TFEQ score, disinhibition, and hunger susceptibility. High self-transcendence related to higher TFEQ score and cognitive restraint |
| Gendall [157] | NC | Comparing those who crave food and binge eat versus those who crave and do not subsequently binge | Food | 223 | F | 18–46 | Not stated | Cravers who binged tended to have higher BMI, higher frequency of diagnosed BN, elevated dietary restraint, and lower self-directedness |
| Gibson [42] | NC | Body image scores for rugby union players | Body composition, custom version of Low Energy Availability Amongst New Zealand Athletes, EDI-3 | 26 | M | 19–28 | Not stated | High prevalence of disordered eating behaviours, disturbances in body image |
| Griffiths [28] | NC | Anabolic androgenic steroid use/contemplation and associations with factors including body dissatisfaction and ED symptoms in sexual minority men | Online survey: Self-report weight/height, sexuality, anabolic steroid use/consideration, MBAS-R, EDE-QS, BBQ |
1797 from Aus 514 from NZ |
99.1% M, 0.4% other (same sample in refs 24–26) |
18–78 years | Reported as Aus NZ and Non-Aus NZ | ED symptoms and dissatisfaction with muscularity and height more prevalent among those who use AAS, while dissatisfaction with body fat less common in this group |
| Griffiths [27] | NC (Griffiths et al. [28]sample) | Pornography use and body image, associated behaviours, and quality of life in sexual minority men | Online survey: self-reported weight and height, sexuality, MBAS-R, EDE-QS |
1797 from Aus 514 from NZ |
99.1% M, 0.4% other | 18–78 | Not stated for NZ | Increased pornography use was weakly associated with more body dissatisfaction and thoughts of anabolic steroids use |
| Griffiths [29] | NC (Griffiths et al. (2017) sample) [28] | Social media use and body image, ED symptoms, and steroid use contemplation in sexual minority men | Online survey: self-reported social media/dating use, height/weight, sexuality, use/thoughts of anabolic steroids, MBAS-R, EDE-QS |
1797 from Aus 514 from NZ |
99.1% M, 0.4% other | 18–78 | Not stated for NZ | Social media use positively associated with body dissatisfaction, ED symptoms, and thoughts of anabolic steroid use. Some associations strongest for image-centric platforms |
| Hechler [158] | Clinicians | Assess clinicians understanding of role of physical activity in AN—and describe assessment and management strategies | EDSCS (Eating disorder specialist/clinician survey) | 33 | Not stated | Not stated | Reported as Aus/NZ | The majority of specialists consider physical activity to be important in EDs, however those from an Asian background considered it to be minor in comparison to other nationalities |
| Hickman [159]* | BN, NC | Looking at relationships and associated attachments in those with and without BN, within a sample of university students | EDI, Close Relationship Scale, TFEQ, Relationship Satisfaction Scale | 123 (unclear how many with BN symptoms) | F | 18–40 | Not stated | More anxious attachment and dieting in participants with bulimia |
| Hudson [160]* | NC | Body dissatisfaction, BMI, esteem, eating attitudes | EDE, BSQ, RSES, BMI | 36 | F | 17–55 |
67% NZ European, 8% Māori, 25% Other |
Elevated BMI linked to higher body dissatisfaction |
| Jenkins [161]* | NC | Eating disorder symptomatology among females in NZ of Chinese and other ethnicities | EAT-40, Eating Disorder Belief Questionnaire, additional custom questions, Perceived Sociocultural Pressure Scale, SEED, ratings of body image figures | 116 | F | 18–47 | 34% Chinese, 5% Taiwan, 49% NZ European, 8% NZ Māori, 1% Pasifika, 3% Other Ethnicities | More body image dissatisfaction and fear of weight gain in Chinese group. Similar pressure to be thin between groups |
| Jospe [162] | NC (SWIFT) | Whether association between weight/diet monitoring influenced eating disorder symptoms | EDE-Q, self-reports of ED behaviours | 250 | 62% F, 68% M | < 18 | 176 European, 18 Māori, 7 Pasifika, 5 Asian | Self-monitoring did not increase ED symptoms |
| Kessler [1] | TRH (BED data not previously reported) | Assessing prevalence and correlates of binge eating disorder | Composite International Diagnostic Interview | 24124 (7312 NZ) | Not specified for NZ | > 18 | Not stated | Lifetime prevalence estimates of BED are higher than BN, fewer than half of lifetime BN or BED cases receive treatment |
| Kessler [26] | BED, BN (TRH) | Compared impairment and role attainment (e.g. employment) between BED and BN | CIDI, WHO-DAS | 7312 from NZ (not included in occupation and earnings assessment) | Not specified for NZ | 18–98 | Not stated | Effects on role attainments similar for BN and BED. F less likely to be currently married, M less likely to be currently employed. Both more higher odds of work disability and more days of work impairment |
| Kokaua [163]* | BN, AN | Includes prediction of eating disorder prevalence among Cook Islanders in New Zealand | NZMHS, MHINZ | How to report? | How to report? | 16+ | Cook Island | Any eating disorder 1.4% 12 months prevalence (unadjusted) or 1.1% adjusted. Ethnic differences in eating disorders even after adjustment |
| Latner [164] | BED, BN, AN | Comparing quality of life ratings in those with subjective versus objective binge eating | EDE-Q, SF-36, BDI-II | 53 | F | M 26.30 (SD 8.98) | 94% European, 2% Asian, 2% Māori, 2% Pasifika | Impaired quality of life for subjective binge episodes and compensatory behaviours. Also accounted for 27% of physical QoL variance |
| Latner [165] | NC | Associations between body checking/avoidance, quality of life (QoL) and disordered eating | BCQ, BIAQ, BMI, SF-36, EDE-Q, BDI-II | 214 | F |
M 26.3 (SD 8.98) |
86% European, 8% Asian, 52% Māori | Both body checking and avoidance associated with lower QoL and higher ED symptoms |
| Latner [166] | BED, BN, AN, EDNOS | QoL impairment due to features of EDs (e.g. eating concern, restraint, vomiting, excessive weight concerns) | EDE-Q, The Medical Outcomes Short-form Health Survey (SF-36), BDI-II |
53 ED 212 NC |
F | 17–65 | 88% European, 7% Asian, 5% Māori | More EDE-Q features, particularly shape/weight concerns, were predictive of poorer QoL |
| Lau [167]* | NC (SuNDiAL) | Desire to lose weight and methods of losing weight, including unhealthy weight loss methods, among adolescents | Weight attitudes and motivations for food choice questionnaire, custom questions about body image and weight loss intentions and methods | 370 | 66% F, 34%M | 15–18 | 72% European, 14% Māori, 13% Asian, 2% Pasifika | High prevalence of weight loss intentions. Weight loss methods more common in females |
| Leydon [168] | NC | Eating habits among jockeys | EAT, food diaries, menstrual status, DEXA scan, body composition, anthropometry | 20 |
70% F 30% M |
Not stated | Not stated | Osteopenia and weight control efforts common among sample of jockeys |
| Linardon [169] | NC, BED, BN | Participant views of digital interventions for treatment and prevention of eating disorders | Custom questionnaires | 722 (133 from Aus/NZ) |
95% F 5% M |
M 30.25 (SD 8.29) | 77.1% European, 0.4%% African American, 8.6% Hispanic, 10.4% Asian, 0.6% Pasifika Island, 2.9% other | Pros and cons identified, cons included concerns about privacy and accuracy of data |
| Lucassen [170] | NC (YHS) | Comparing body size, weight, nutrition, and activities in sexual and gender minorities (SGM to controls | Custom survey re weight control behaviours, BMI | 7769 |
56% F (incl. 312 S/GM females) 45% M (incl. 150 S/GM males) |
13–18 | 49% European, 20% Māori, 13% Pasifika, 12% Asian, 6% other | More issues with nutrition, unhealthy weight control, and inactivity among sexual and gender minorities |
| Madden [7] | NC | Association between intuitive eating and BMI, and eating behaviours among less intuitive eaters | Intuitive Eating Scale, BMI (self-reported weight/height), Rapid Assessment of Physical Activity, additional selected questions of menopausal status, binge-eating, food intake, and rate of eating | 2500 | F | 40–50 | 83% European, 11.4% Māori, 3.0% Pasifika, 85% Asian | Intuitive eating inversely associated with BMI. Partial mediation by binge-eating |
| Maguire [171] | AN | Ability to predict length of inpatient treatment Australasian clinical data | Clinical data | 154 | 98% F |
M 21.2 (SD 7.2) |
Not stated | Difficulty in predicting length of stay, with only two factors (length of stay, 2–3 previous admissions) independently contributing to this |
| McCabe [172] | NC | Three studies comparing body image of those within five different countries and cultures (Fijian, Indo-Fijian, Tongans living Tonga, New Zealand Tongan, European Australians) | Interviews and questionnaires about eating behaviours and physical activity, perceptual distortion task | Study 1: 240; Study 2: 3000; Study 3: 300 | 50% F, 50% M | 12–18 |
Study 1: 48 from each cultural group, Study 2: 600 from each cultural group, Study 3:100 from each Fijian cultural group and European Australians |
Body image, eating, and physical activity influenced by socio-cultural environment |
| McCabe [173] | NC (Pacific OPIC Project) | Environmental influences on body change strategies within different cultural groups | Body Image and Body Change Questionnaire | 4904 (461 NZ) | 48% F, 52% M (NZ 62% F, 38% M) | 12–18 | Tongan | Differing messages across and within cultural groups |
| Miller [174] | NC | Body perception in relation to media consumption and societal ideals | The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire, FRS, Media Time Use, INCOM | 181 |
66% F 34% M |
17–30 | 84% European, 7% Māori, 3% Asian, 2% other | Greater discrepancy between ideal and perceived current body figures for women. Greater thin ideal internalisation for women. Awareness and internalisation of thinness norms predicted body perceptions for women but not men |
| Moss [175]* | AN, EDNOS | Body dissatisfaction and associated factors in adolescents with eating disorders | EDI-3, CAPS, PSPS, DASS-21 |
40 (13 AN, 7 EDNOS) 20 NC |
F | M 15.75 (SD 1.52) |
ED: 80% European 10% Māori, 10% other CT: 90% European, 10% Māori, 0% other |
Higher maladaptive perfectionism and anxiety linked to BD, but didn’t interact as predictors of BD in ED group |
| Muir [176]* | AN, NC | Whether women with AN differed from low weight women without AN in recognising emotions | Performance on facial emotion recognition test (reaction speed and accuracy) | 33 | F | 18–55 | AN: 41.7% NZE, 8% Maori, 4 “other”. NC: 90.5% NZE, 2 British, 1 Russian | Shorter response time for AN group, no difference in accuracy measures |
| Mulgrew [177] | NC | Weight control behaviours and associated factors in young people | BAQ, MBAS-R, PHQ, modified WCBS, BMI, weight management questions | 1082 |
75% F 25% M |
18–30 | 79% NZEO | More weight control behaviours among females. Feelings of fatness a key predictor of weight control |
| Ngamanu [178]* | NC | Compared levels of body image dissatisfaction and eating pathology in Māori and Pakeha women, also examining whether the ethnic attachment of participants was associated with the body image | BMI, MEIM, FRS, EAT-26 | 100 | F | 18–50 + | 34% Pakeha, 66% Māori | Body image dissatisfaction and eating pathology did not differ between groups. Level of ethnic attachment also did not impact body image satisfaction |
| Browne [179] | BN, AN (TRH) | Lifetime prevalence/risk of psychiatric disorders in the New Zealand population | Survey | 12, 992 |
57% F 43% M |
16+ | 20% Māori, 17% Pasifika, 63% Other (Part 1), 22% Māori, 18% Pasifika, 60% Other (long-form sample) |
Any ED 1.7%CI 1.5, 2.1) LT prevalence AN 0.6 (CI 0.4,0.8): BN 1.3 (1.1,1.5): Females: 2.9 (CI 2.3,3.5); Males 0.5 (CI 0.3, 0.9) |
| O'Brien [6] | NC | Body image and self-esteem in physical education (PE) university students | Demographic questionnaires, self-reported BMI, BES, EAT-26, global self-esteem scale from the SDQIII | 228 | F |
PE 18: 34 ± 0.64, Psychology 18: 46 ± 0.78, Year 3 PE 21:.0 ± 1.18, Year 3 Psychology20: 9 ± 1.06 |
Not stated | Year 3 PE students had lower self-esteem and more disordered eating |
| O'Brien [180] | NC | Psychosocial characteristics among those in a weight loss programme | Custom questions on reasons, MBSRQ, single item self-esteem scale | 106 |
86% F 14% M |
M 41.9 (SD 10.8) |
Not stated | Key reasons for wanting to lose weight were mood, appearance, and health. Poorer self-image/self-esteem for those citing mood reasons |
| Overton [181] | Clinical | Comparing emotional experience of women with EDs to NC controls | EDI-2, YSQ-SI, DES-IV | 130 (30 ED) | F |
Cases: M 28.1 NC M 23.8 |
Not stated | Use of disordered eating behaviours to manipulate both positive and negative emotional states, should be recognised as an important maintenance factor |
| Reynolds [182] | Clinicians | Whether health professionals felt orthorexia should be recognised as an eating disorder | Custom online survey and qualitative text boxes | 52 |
96% F 4% M |
41.2 ± 11.9 | Not stated | Most clinicians (71%) felt that orthorexia should be recognised as a distinct ED |
| Robertson [183]* | NC | Associations between body image, self-esteem, and peer and romantic relationships | Body Image and Body Change Questionnaire, Physical Attractiveness Scale, Body Image Behaviour Scale, Social Physique Anxiety Scale, Physical Appearance Comparison Scale, RSES, Self-Description Questionnaire III, Perceived Relationship Quality Components Scale | 91 | 80% F, 20% M | 17–69 | Not stated | Positive relationship between body-image and self-esteem, and between body image and quality of romantic relationships. Positive relationship between self-esteem and relationships (peer and romantic). Body image predicted self-esteem and quality of peer-relationships Self-esteem predicted romantic relationship quality |
| Rodino [184] | Clinicians | Fertility specialists' knowledge and practices relating to eating disorder | Adapted online questionnaire | 106 | 51% F, 49% M | 25 + | Not stated | Knowledge around relevant symptoms of eating disorders, but uncertainty around ED detection. Many not satisfied with training in this area, or not confident in ability to recognise symptoms. Large majority indicated need for further education/guidelines |
| Rosewall [185] | NC | Risk factors for body dissatisfaction in girls | NZSEI, EAT-26, Stunkard Body Figure Drawings, EDI, CAPS, RSES, Sociocultural Influences on Body Image and Body Change Questionnaire (Perceived Pressure to Lose Weight subscale), PANAS, POTS | 231 | F | 14–18 | 73.7% NZ European, 10.3% Māori, 5.6% Asian, 2.6% Pasifika and 3% Other | Risk factors for higher levels of body dissatisfaction were perfectionism, perceived media pressure, and low self-esteem |
| Rosewall [186] | NC | Exploring moderations of association between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviours | NZSEI, ChEAT, Collins Body Figure Perceptions, EDI, CAPS, RSE, PANAS-C, Sociocultural Influences and Body Change Questionnaire, POTS (weight-based teasing subscale) | 169 | F | 10–12 | 84.0% NZ European, 11% Māori, 6% Asian, 2% Pasifika, 1% Other | Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating association were moderated by personal (e.g. perfectionism, self-esteem) and environmental factors (e.g. teasing, perceived media pressure) |
| Rosewall [187] | NC | Psychopathology factors related to links between BMI and body dissatisfaction, and between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating | BMI, BSQ, BIA, BES, EAT-26, PAI | 186 | F | 18–40 | 78.9% NZ European, 13.3% Asian/part Asian, 3.0% Māori, 1.2% Pasifika Island 3.6% other | Reporting lower BD (than would be predicted by BMI), and less disordered eating (than would be predicted by BD) was linked to lower levels of anxiety/depression and higher mood stability |
| Shephard [188]* | NC | Influence of family experiences related to food and self-compassion on the association between appearance ideals and body dissatisfaction | SATAQ (Revised—Female Version), BSQ, family Experiences Related to Food Questionnaire (FERFQ), self-compassion scale (SCS) | 106 | F | 18–48 | 85.8% NZ European, 4.6% NZ European and 'another ethnicity', 3.8% Chinese, 1.9% Māori, 3.8% another ethnicity | Family food related experiences and self-compassion appear to be protective, moderating relationship between body dissatisfaction and thin ideal internalisation |
| Slater [189]* | NC | Energy intake, activity, and disordered eating behaviours in recreational athletes | EDI-3, LEAFQ | 170 |
64% F 36% M |
18–56 | Not stated | Low energy availability (LEA) common but no risk of ED for most of those with LEA |
| Strang [190]* | Restrained eaters | Responses to Stroop test words about food, weight, and shape by restrained eaters versus unrestrained eaters | Stroop test, RS, STAI, BDI | 55 (21 restrained eaters) | Only F after initial phase | Restrained: 24.33 (9.80), unrestrained: 21.85 (5.64) | Not stated | No group differences, but may have been due to minimal symptomatology in restrained eating group versus comparison groups |
| Talwar [12] | NC | Body image and body dissatisfaction among Māori and non-Māori participants | Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure, BIA-G, BES | 45 | F |
Māori: M 19.8 (SD 1.2), European: M 19.0 (SD 1.2) |
50% Māori 50% European |
Lower concern about weight among Māori. Stronger Māori ethnic identity was associated with lower weight concern |
| Utter [5] | NC | Identifying 'red flag' behaviours for unhealthy weight loss | Youth'07 survey | 9107 |
46% F 56% M |
13–18 | Māori, European, Pasifika, Asian (% not stated in this paper) | Meal skipping and fasting are 'red flag' behaviours associated with poor mental wellbeing |
| Vallance [191] | NC | ED symptoms and health related quality of life | SF-36, EDE-Q, EDI-2, BSQ, BCQ, BIAQ, BDI-II, BSI | 214 | F | 17–65 | 85% European, 7.5% Asian, 6.1% Māori | DE and BD linked to lower quality of life |
| Vaňousová [192] | NC | Evaluating validity of the Eating Concerns (EAT) scale from the MPPI-3 | MPPI-3 (specifically EAT scale), EPSI, EDE-Q, EDDS, BES, BI_AAQ | 396 |
79% F 21% M |
17–51 | 91% European, 12% Maori, 8% Chinese, 4% Indian, 2% Pasifika (some participants more than one) | Scores from new MPPI-3 EAT scale seem promising as a screening measure for eating pathology |
| Wells [20] | BN, AN (TRH) | Prevalence and severity of different disorders, including eating disorders, within NZ. Oversampled for Māori and Pasifika | CIDI | Short form: 12, 992, long form: 7435 | 57% F, 43% M | 16+ | 20% Māori, 17% Pasifika, 63% Other (Part 1), 22% Māori, 18% Pasifika, 60% Other (long-form sample) | Any eating disorder 1.7% lifetime prevalence, 0.5% 12-month prevalence |
| Wells [193] | BN, AN (TRH) | Severity and interference with life for mental health conditions among NZ sample | CIDI, Sheehan Disability Scale | Part 1: 12,992, part 2: 7435 | 57% F, 43% M | 16+ | 20% Māori, 17% Pasifika, 63% Other (Part 1), 22% Māori, 18% Pasifika, 60% Other (long-form sample) | Prevalence for EDs 0.5% in last 12 months |
NC non-clinical, CIDI Composite International Diagnostic Interview, BMI body mass index, DQI Diet Quality Index, EAT Eating Attitudes Test, MAST Michigan Alcohol Screening Test, CES-D Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, AUDIT Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, RSE Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, BDI Beck Depression Inventory, WCBS Weight Control Behaviours Scale, EDI Eating Disorder Inventory, PANAS-C Positive and Negative Affect Scale for Children, MEIM Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure, MCSDS Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, SAI Spontaneity Assessment Inventory, WBIS Weight Bias Internalisation Scale, DIGS Diagnostic Interview for Genetic Studies, TCI Temperament and Character Inventory, TFEQ Three Factor Eating Questionnaire, LEANZA Low Energy Availability Amongst New Zealand Athletes, MBAS-R Revised Male Body Attitudes Scale, EDE-QS Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire Short, BBQ Brunnsviken Brief Quality of Life Scale, EDSCS Eating Disorder Specialist/Clinician Survey, SDQIII Self-Description Questionnaire III, BSQ Body Shape Questionnaire, SEED Short Evaluation of Eating Disorders, NZMHS World Health Organisation Disability Assessment Schedule, New Zealand Mental Health Survey, MHINZ Mental Health Information New Zealand, SF-36 36 Item Short-Form Survey, BIAQ Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire, BCQ Body Checking Questionnaire, EDE Eating Disorders Examination, FRS Figure Rating Scale, INCOM Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Scale, CAPS Clinician Administered PTSD Scale for DSM, PSPS Perceived Sociocultural Pressure Scale, DASS Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale, BAQ Body Attitudes Questionnaire, PHQ Patient Health Questionnaire, BES Binge Eating Scale, MBSRQ Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire, YSQ-SI Young Schema Questionnaire—Social Isolation, DES Differential Emotions Scale, PANAS Positive and Negative Affect Scale, CAPS Clinician Administered PTSD Scale, POTS The Perception of Teasing Scale, NZSEI New Zealand Socioeconomic Index, ChEAT Children’s Version of the Eating Attitudes Test, EDI-BD Eating Disorders Inventory—Body Dissatisfaction scale, BIA Body Image Assessment, PAI Personality Assessment Inventory, LEAFQ Low Energy Availability Questionnaire, STAI State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, BIA-G Group Administered Version of the Body Image Assessment, MMPI Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, EPSI Eating Pathology Symptoms Inventory, EDDS The Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale, BI_AAQ Body Image—Acceptance and Action Questionnaire
*Identifies that the record is a thesis