Table 1.
Lead Epigenetic Biomarkers by Participant Characteristics (N=2321)
| Variable | No. (%) | eTibia lead, μg/g | ePatella lead, μg/g | eBlood lead, μg/dL | Urinary cadmium, μg/g | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | Men | 962 (41.5) | 13.2 (11.1–15.3) | 20.8 (18.1–24.5) | 2.9 (2.5–3.4) | 0.71 (0.47–1.10) |
| Women | 1359 (58.5) | 14.2 (12.2–16.6) | 21.6 (18.8–25.1) | 2.9 (2.6–3.4) | 1.16 (0.77–1.78) | |
| Age, y | 44.0–50.8 | 668 (28.8) | 14.0 (12.0–16.4) | 21.0 (18.6–24.3) | 3.0 (2.6–3.4) | 0.90 (0.56–1.31) |
| 50.9–59.5 | 1244 (53.6) | 13.8 (11.6–16.1) | 21.2 (18.3–24.9) | 2.9 (2.6–3.4) | 1.00 (0.64–1.55) | |
| 59.6–75.4 | 409 (17.6) | 13.7 (11.5–15.8) | 21.6 (19.0–25.2) | 2.9 (2.5–3.3) | 1.03 (0.64–1.59) | |
| Center | Arizona | 311 (13.4) | 13.9 (11.6–16.0) | 20.5 (17.8–23.3) | 2.9 (2.6–3.4) | 0.76 (0.53–1.19) |
| Oklahoma | 981 (42.3) | 13.9 (11.7–16.2) | 21.0 (18.3–24.5) | 3.0 (2.6–3.4) | 0.86 (0.55–1.33) | |
| ND/SD | 1029 (44.3) | 13.8 (11.7–16.1) | 21.7 (18.9–25.5) | 2.9 (2.5–3.4) | 1.11 (0.75–1.78) | |
| Smoking status | Never | 684 (29.5) | 13.8 (11.8–15.8) | 21.1 (18.3–24.8) | 3.0 (2.6–3.5) | 0.87 (0.55–1.36) |
| Former | 745 (32.1) | 13.8 (11.8–16.0) | 21.3 (18.4–25.1) | 2.9 (2.6–3.3) | 0.81 (0.55–1.25) | |
| Current | 892 (38.4) | 14.0 (11.7–16.5) | 21.3 (18.7–24.6) | 2.9 (2.6–3.4) | 1.17 (0.77–1.81) | |
| Urinary cadmium, μg/g | <0.71 | 758 (32.7) | 13.4 (11.3–15.5) | 20.8 (18.2–24.4) | 2.9 (2.6–3.4) | 0.51 (0.38–0.61) |
| 0.71–1.26 | 790 (34.0) | 13.8 (11.8–16.2) | 21.3 (18.4–25.0) | 3.0 (2.6–3.5) | 0.96 (0.83–1.10) | |
| >1.26 | 773 (33.3) | 14.1 (12.0–16.7) | 21.6 (18.8–25.2) | 2.9 (2.5–3.3) | 1.81 (1.50–2.33) | |
| BMI, kg/m2 | <25 | 406 (17.5) | 14.1 (12.0–16.3) | 21.6 (18.7–25.1) | 3.0 (2.6–3.5) | 1.21 (0.78–1.87) |
| 25–30 | 830 (35.8) | 13.6 (11.5–16.2) | 21.2 (18.5–24.8) | 3.0 (2.6–3.4) | 0.98 (0.62–1.51) | |
| ≥30 | 1085 (46.7) | 13.8 (11.7–16.0) | 21.2 (18.5–24.8) | 2.9 (2.5–3.3) | 0.87 (0.57–1.35) | |
| Diabetes | Yes | 966 (41.6) | 13.8 (11.5–15.9) | 21.2 (18.4–24.7) | 2.9 (2.5–3.4) | 0.89 (0.58–1.41) |
| No | 1355 (58.4) | 13.8 (11.8–16.3) | 21.3 (18.6–24.9) | 3.0 (2.6–3.4) | 1.02 (0.65–1.54) | |
| Hypertension treatment | Yes | 464 (20.0) | 14.0 (12.0–16.0) | 20.8 (18.2–24.6) | 3.0 (2.6–3.5) | 0.86 (0.56–1.33) |
| No | 1857 (80.0) | 13.7 (11.7–16.2) | 21.4 (18.6–24.9) | 2.9 (2.6–3.4) | 1.00 (0.64–1.54) | |
| SBP, mm Hg | <124 | 1146 (49.4) | 13.7 (11.6–16.0) | 21.2 (18.5–24.8) | 2.9 (2.6–3.4) | 1.01 (0.65–1.53) |
| ≥124 | 1175 (50.6) | 13.9 (11.8–16.3) | 21.3 (18.5–24.8) | 2.9 (2.6–3.4) | 0.92 (0.60–1.46) | |
| LDL‐C, mg/dL | <119 | 1159 (50.0) | 14.0 (11.8–16.3) | 21.4 (18.5–24.9) | 3.0 (2.6–3.4) | 0.97 (0.61–1.48) |
| ≥119 | 1162 (50.0) | 13.7 (11.5–16.0) | 21.1 (18.5–24.8) | 2.9 (2.5–3.3) | 0.96 (0.62–1.52) | |
| HDL‐C, mg/dL | <44 | 1140 (49.1) | 13.6 (11.4–15.9) | 21.0 (18.3–24.7) | 2.9 (2.5–3.4) | 0.91 (0.57–1.41) |
| ≥44 | 1181 (50.9) | 14.1 (12.0–16.3) | 21.5 (18.8–24.9) | 2.9 (2.6–3.4) | 1.03 (0.67–1.59) | |
| eGFR, mL/min per 1.73 m2 | <60 | 76 (3.3) | 14.7 (11.9–17.3) | 21.4 (18.9–25.6) | 2.9 (2.5–3.4) | 0.91 (0.53–1.51) |
| ≥60 | 2245 (96.7) | 13.8 (11.7–16.1) | 21.3 (18.5–24.8) | 2.9 (2.6–3.4) | 0.97 (0.62–1.50) | |
| CVD mortality | Yes | 452 (19.5) | 14.1 (11.7–16.3) | 21.4 (18.6–25.0) | 3.0 (2.6–3.4) | 1.00 (0.65–1.60) |
| No | 1869 (80.5) | 13.7 (11.7–16.1) | 21.2 (18.5–24.8) | 2.9 (2.6–3.4) | 0.96 (0.61–1.48) | |
| CVD incidence | Yes | 1023 (44.1) | 13.7 (11.4–16.0) | 21.3 (18.5–25.0) | 2.9 (2.5–3.3) | 0.99 (0.62–1.54) |
| No | 1298 (55.9) | 13.9 (11.9–16.2) | 21.2 (18.5–24.7) | 2.9 (2.6–3.4) | 0.95 (0.61–1.46) |
Data are given as median (25th–75th percentile), unless otherwise indicated. Urinary cadmium concentrations were expressed in micrograms per gram of urine creatinine. BMI indicates body mass index; CVD, cardiovascular disease; eBlood, DNA methylation–based biomarker of lead exposure in blood; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; ePatella, DNA methylation–based biomarker of lead exposure in patella; eTibia, DNA methylation–based biomarker of lead exposure in tibia; HDL‐C, high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL‐C, low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol; ND, North Dakota; SBP, systolic blood pressure; and SD, South Dakota.