TABLE 1.
Included studies of online symptom checkers and triage tools ordered chronologically.
| Article information | Topics | ||||||||||||
| References | Date | Country | Type | Sample size (n) | User demo-graphic | Safety | Diagnostic accuracy | Triage accuracy | Compliance | Impact | User experience | Cost effectiveness | Combination of demand management strategies |
| Schmieding et al. (21) | May 2022 | Germany | Follow-up audit study | 22 symptom checkers, 45 case vignettes | X | X | |||||||
| Kujala et al. (36) | May 2022 | Finland | Cross-sectional survey | 639 health care professionals | X | ||||||||
| Tsai et al. (35) | March 2022 | USA | Mixed method study: interview study and user study | Interviews n = 25 Users n = 20 |
X | ||||||||
| Dickson et al. (17) | February 2022 | UK | Retrospective cohort study | 25.333 self-assessments | X | ||||||||
| Chan et al. (19) | December 2021 | Canada | Prospective cohort study | 281 hospital patients, 300 clinic patients | X | X | X | ||||||
| Turner et al. (11) | November 2021 | UK | Mixed method study | Qualitative survey user questionnaire: Telephone n = 795. Online n = 3.728. Interview n = 32. Staff interview n = 16. |
X | X | X | X | X | X | |||
| Schmieding et al. (21) | July 2021 | UK | Observational audit study | 12 symptom checkers, 50 case vignettes | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Yu et al. (25) | March 2021 | Germany | Survey study | 15 symptom checkers, 45 case vignettes, 91 users | X | ||||||||
| You et al. (34) | January 2021 | USA | Mixed method study | 10 semi-structured interviews, 2000 user reviews | X | ||||||||
| Aboueid et al. (13) | January 2021 | Canada | Qualitative cross-sectional survey | Survey n = 1.547 | X | X | |||||||
| Cross et al. (23) | January 2021 | Australia | User study | 512 simulated self-assessments | X | ||||||||
| Morse et al. (1) | November 2020 | USA | Population-based descriptive study | 26.646 self-assessments | X | X | |||||||
| Schmieding et al. (24) | July 2020 | Hong Kong SAR, China | Audit study | 2 symptom checkers, 100 ED patient records | X | X | |||||||
| Hill et al. (22) | June 2020 | Australia | Follow-up audit study | 1.170 diagnosis vignette tests, 688 triage vignette tests | X | X | X | ||||||
| Gottliebsen et al. (15) | May 2020 | Norway and Sweden | Literature review | 17 publications | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Sutham et al. (26) | April 2020 | Thailand | Mixed method study | 12 emergency physicians | X | X | X | ||||||
| Donovan et al. (31) | February 2020 | UK | Systematic review | 3 publications | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Meyer et al. (27) | January 2020 | USA | Cross-sectional survey | Survey n = 329 | X | X | X | X | |||||
| Chambers et al. (12) | August 2019 | UK | Systematic review | 29 publications | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | |
| Aboueid et al. (14) | May 2019 | Canada | Scoping review | 19 publications | X | X | |||||||
| Millenson et al. (18) | September 2018 | USA | Scoping review | 30 publications | X | ||||||||
| Verzantvoort et al. (3) | June 2018 | Netherlands | A prospective, cross-sectional study | Questionnaire: online n = 4.456 Phone n = 126 |
X | X | X | X | X | X | |||
| Polynskaya et al. (37) | June 2018 | Russia | Mixed method study | Survey n = 200 Interview n = 40 Focus group = 1 |
X | ||||||||
| Giesen et al. (6) | July 2017 | Netherlands | Cross-sectional survey | Survey n = 377, 1.367 cases | X | ||||||||
| Elliot et al. (32) |
December 2015 | UK | Retrospective observational study | 3.37 million self-assessments | X | ||||||||
| Semigran et al. (16) | May 2015 | USA | Audit study | 23 symptom checkers, 45 case vignettes | X | X | X | ||||||
| Lupton et al. (29) | May 2015 | New Zealand | Critical analysis | 35 symptom checkers | X | ||||||||
| Nijland et al. (28) | 2010 | Netherlands | Retrospective analysis | 6.538 self-assessments Survey n = 192 |
X | X | |||||||
Topics marked with “X” are covered by the corresponding study.