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. 2022 Dec 26;12(1):48. doi: 10.3390/antiox12010048

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© 2022 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway. Enzyme names are abbreviated as follows: phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H), 4-coumarate:CoA ligase (4CL), chalcone synthase (CHS), chalcone isomerase (CHI), flavanone 3-hydroxylase (F3H), flavonoid 3′-hydroxylase (F3′H), flavonoid 3′,5′-hydroxylase (F3′5′H), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR), anthocyanidin synthase (ANS), leucocyanidin oxygenase (LDOX), uridine diphosphate-dependent glucosyltransferase (UFGT), glutathione S-transferase (GST), multi-antimicrobial extrusion protein (MATE), and ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC) [1,2].