Table 5.
Summary of the quality assessment using the Effective Public Health Practice Project Tool [25].
| Lead Author (Year) | Selection Bias | Study Design | Confounders | Blinding | Data Collection Tools | Withdrawals | Summary Rating |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arcury (2017) [34] | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | N/A | Weak | Strong | Moderate |
| Avol (1998) [50] | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | N/A | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Bacha (2010) [51] | Moderate | Moderate | Strong | N/A | Weak | Moderate | Moderate |
| Bagordo (2017) [52] | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | N/A | Weak | Moderate | Weak |
| Buller (2020) [53] | Weak | Strong | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Cameron (2019) [35] | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | N/A | Weak | Moderate | Weak |
| Christiana (2017) [54] | Moderate | Moderate | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Cleland (2008) [55] | Weak | Moderate | Strong | N/A | Strong | Weak | Weak |
| Cleland (2010) [56] | Weak | Moderate | Strong | N/A | Strong | Weak | Weak |
| Cortinez-O’Ryan (2017) [57] | Moderate | Strong | Weak | Weak | Strong | Strong | Weak |
| Davison (2011) [36] | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | Weak |
| Dunton (2007) [81] | Weak | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Moderate | Weak | Weak |
| Essery (2008) [37] | Weak | Strong | Strong | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Evenson (2018) [82] | Weak | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Strong | Strong | Weak |
| Flynn (2017) [58] | Weak | Moderate | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak |
| Ford (2002) [59] | Weak | Strong | Strong | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| French (2013) [83] | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | N/A | Weak | Weak | Weak |
| Gerards (2015) [60] | Moderate | Strong | Strong | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak |
| Gopinath (2013) [84] | Moderate | Moderate | Strong | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak |
| Händel (2017) [38] | Weak | Strong | Strong | Weak | Weak | Weak | Weak |
| Handy (2008) [61] | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | N/A | Weak | Moderate | Weak |
| He (2015) [12] | Strong | Strong | Moderate | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Hesketh (2015) [39] | Strong | Strong | Weak | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Hnatiuk (2013) [40] | Moderate | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Weak | Moderate | Weak |
| Honda-Barros (2019) [41] | Strong | Moderate | Strong | N/A | Weak | Moderate | Moderate |
| Huang (2021) [42] | Moderate | Moderate | Strong | N/A | Weak | Moderate | Moderate |
| Kemp (2022) [62] | Moderate | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Li (2021) [63] | Weak | Moderate | Strong | N/A | Weak | Weak | Weak |
| Li (2022) [43] | Moderate | Moderate | Strong | N/A | Weak | Weak | Weak |
| Lin (2017) [85] | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | N/A | Weak | Moderate | Weak |
| Lumeng (2017) [44] | Moderate | Strong | Strong | Weak | Moderate | Strong | Moderate |
| Miller (2017) [86] | Weak | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Milne (2000) [64] | Strong | Strong | Moderate | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Milne (2007) [65] | Moderate | Strong | Moderate | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak |
| Nigg (2021) [66] | Moderate | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Weak | Weak | Weak |
| Ngo (2009) [67] | Weak | Strong | Strong | Weak | Moderate | Strong | Weak |
| Nordvall-Lassen (2018) [68] | Moderate | Moderate | Strong | N/A | Weak | Moderate | Moderate |
| Ostrin (2018) [69] | Weak | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Strong | Strong | Weak |
| Remmers (2014a) [70] | Moderate | Moderate | Strong | N/A | Weak | Strong | Moderate |
| Remmers (2014b) [71] | Weak | Moderate | Strong | N/A | Weak | Weak | Weak |
| Sääkslahti (2004) [45] | Moderate | Strong | Weak | Weak | Weak | Moderate | Weak |
| Sadeh-Sharvit (2020) [72] | Weak | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Moderate | Moderate | Weak |
| Sanchez-Tocino (2019) [73] | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | N/A | Weak | Moderate | Weak |
| Schneor (2021) [74] | Weak | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Strong | Moderate | Weak |
| Shah (2017) [46] | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | N/A | Weak | Weak | Weak |
| Shepherd-Baniga (2014) [75] | Weak | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Sum (2022) [76] | Weak | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Weak | Weak | Weak |
| Tandon (2019) [47] | Weak | Strong | Moderate | Weak | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Thiering (2016) [48] | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | N/A | Weak | Weak | Weak |
| Van Griecken (2014) [77] | Weak | Strong | Moderate | Strong | Weak | Weak | Weak |
| Van Stralen (2012) [78] | Moderate | Strong | Strong | Strong | Weak | Strong | Moderate |
| Walker (2021) [79] | Weak | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Watowicz (2012) [87] | Moderate | Moderate | Moderate | N/A | Weak | Moderate | Moderate |
| Wolters (2022) [80] | Weak | Moderate | Weak | N/A | Weak | Strong | Weak |
| Xu (2016) [49] | Weak | Moderate | Moderate | N/A | Moderate | Weak | Weak |
Note: Blinding was rated as non-applicable (N/A) for observational studies given the absence of intervention.