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. 2023 Jan 11;24(2):1422. doi: 10.3390/ijms24021422

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© 2023 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Schematic signaling pathways of leptin in obesity. The upper panel (A) represents a normal situation (left) and another with hyperleptinemia (right) and its effect on the expression of hypothalamic neuropeptides that regulate intake. The panel (B) shows adipose tissue in lean (left) or obese patients (right). The adipose tissue in obese subjets presents a hypertrophy of adipocytes, as well as a greater infiltration of macrophages and other inflammatory cells. In panel (C), the mechanism involved in the endoplasmic reticulum stress blocking of leptin signaling is indicated. See Section 2.1 and Section 3.2.1 for details.