Table 1.
TRF-induced changes in the gut microbiome: evidence from human studies.
| Fasting Hours and Duration of TRF | Number of Subjects | Changes in Gut Microbiome | Sequencing Scheme | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 16 h/25 days | 80 healthy male adults |
↑ microbial diversity ↑ abundance of Bacteroidetes and Prevotellaceae |
16s rRNA (ribosomal ribonucleic acid) | [8] |
| 8 h/12 weeks | 14 adults with obesity | No significant changes in the abundance of microbiota | 16s rRNA | [126] |
| 12 h/12 weeks | 24 patients with obesity |
↑ in the frequency of Lachnospiraceae, Parasutterella, and Romboutsia |
16s rRNA | [127] |
| 2 day modified IF/8 weeks | 39 patients with metabolic syndrome | Induced significant changes in gut microbiota communities ↑ production of short-chain fatty acids ↓ circulating levels of lipopolysaccharides |
16S rRNA sequencing | [128] |
| R-TRF/4 weeks | 30 healthy male adults |
↑ microbial diversity and remodeling of microbiome composition Provoked upregulation of butyric-acid-producing Lachnospiraceae |
16S rRNA sequencing | [129] |
| R-TRF/4 weeks | 34 healthy adults |
↑ alpha and beta diversity ↑ abundance of Prevotella, Faecalibacterium, Bacteroidetes, and Firmicutes |
16S rRNA sequencing | [130] |
| 16 h/26 days | 45 healthy young adults |
↑ alpha diversity ↑ anti-inflammatory bacteria Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium ↓ pathogenic bacteria |
16S rRNA sequencing | [131] |
| R-TRF/29 days | 9 healthy adults |
↑ microbial richness Enriched genera including Butyricicoccus, Bacteroides, Faecalibacterium, Roseburia, Allobaculum, Eubacterium, Dialister, and Erysipelotrichi |
16S rRNA | [132] |
| 17 h/29 days | 9 healthy adults | ↑ abundance of healthy gut microbiota members (Akkermansia muciniphila, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Bifidobacterium spp., Lactobacillus spp., Bacteroides fragilis group, and Enterobacteriaceae) | 16S rRNA | [133] |
| 16 h e-TRF and m-TRF/5 weeks | 82 healthy individuals without obesity | ↑ gut microbial diversity | 16S rDNA | [134] |
↑ = increase, ↓ = decrease, rRNA = ribosomal ribonucleic acid, R-TRF = Ramadan time-restricted feeding, e-TRF = early time-restricted feeding, m-TRF = mid-day time restricted feeding.